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| P-51D-5NA Mustang 44-13357; Lt Vernon Richards, Tika IV 8th AF / 374th FS / 361s t FG. Was later assigned to Lt. Alfred B Cook Jr who renamed it Sailor Girl Shirl - KIA 16 November 1944 - crashed near Little Walden. (USAAF photo) |
The North American
Aviation P-51 Mustang is an American long-range, single-seat fighter and
fighter-bomber used during World War II and the Korean War, among other
conflicts. The Mustang was designed in 1940 by a team headed by James H.
Kindelberger of North American Aviation (NAA) in response to a requirement of
the British Purchasing Commission. The commission approached NAA to build
Curtiss P-40 fighters under license for the Royal Air Force (RAF). Rather than
build an old design from another company, NAA proposed the design and
production of a more modern fighter. The prototype NA-73X airframe was
completed on 9 September 1940, 102 days after contract signing, achieving its
first flight on 26 October.
The Mustang was designed to use the Allison
V-1710 engine without an export-sensitive turbosupercharger or a multi-stage
supercharger, resulting in limited high-altitude performance. The aircraft was
first flown operationally and very successfully by the RAF and as a tactical-reconnaissance
aircraft and fighter-bomber (Mustang Mk I). In mid 1942, a development project
known as the Rolls-Royce Mustang X, replaced the Allison engine with a
Rolls-Royce Merlin 65 two-stage inter-cooled supercharged engine. During
testing at Rolls-Royce's airfield at Hucknall in England, it was clear the
engine dramatically improved the aircraft's performance at altitudes above
15,000 ft (4,600 m) without sacrificing range. Following receipt of the test
results and after further flights by USAAF pilots, the results were so positive
that North American began work on converting several aircraft developing into
the P-51B/C (Mustang Mk III) model, which became the first long range fighter
to be able to compete with the Luftwaffe's fighters. The definitive version,
the P-51D, was powered by the Packard V-1650-7, a license-built version of the
two-speed, two-stage-supercharged Merlin 66, and was armed with six .50 caliber
(12.7 mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns.
From late 1943 into 1945, P-51Bs and P-51Cs
(supplemented by P-51Ds from mid-1944) were used by the USAAF's Eighth Air
Force to escort bombers in raids over Germany, while the RAF's Second Tactical
Air Force and the USAAF's Ninth Air Force used the Merlin-powered Mustangs as
fighter-bombers, roles in which the Mustang helped ensure Allied air
superiority in 1944. The P-51 was also used by Allied air forces in the North
African, Mediterranean, Italian, and Pacific theaters. During World War II,
Mustang pilots claimed to have destroyed 4,950 enemy aircraft.
At the start of the Korean War, the Mustang,
by then redesignated F-51, was the main fighter of the United States until jet
fighters, including North American's F-86 Sabre, took over this role; the
Mustang then became a specialized fighter-bomber. Despite the advent of jet
fighters, the Mustang remained in service with some air forces until the early
1980s. After the Korean War, Mustangs became popular civilian warbirds and air
racing aircraft.
Design and Development
In 1938, the British government established a
purchasing commission in the United States, headed by Sir Henry Self. Self was
given overall responsibility for RAF production, research, and development, and
also served with Sir Wilfrid Freeman, the Air Member for Development and
Production. Self also sat on the British Air Council Subcommittee on Supply (or
"Supply Committee"), and one of his tasks was to organize the
manufacturing and supply of American fighter aircraft for the RAF. At the time,
the choice was very limited, as no US aircraft then in production or flying met
European standards, with only the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk coming close. The
Curtiss-Wright plant was running at capacity, so P-40s were in short supply.
North American Aviation (NAA) was already
supplying its T-6 Texan (known in British service as the "Harvard")
trainer to the RAF, but was otherwise underused. NAA President
"Dutch" Kindelberger approached Self to sell a new medium bomber, the
North American B-25 Mitchell. Instead, Self asked if NAA could manufacture
P-40s under license from Curtiss. Kindelberger said NAA could have a better
aircraft with the same Allison V-1710 engine in the air sooner than
establishing a production line for the P-40.
John Attwood of NAA spent much time from
January to April 1940 at the British Purchasing Commission's offices in New
York discussing the British specifications of the proposed aircraft with
British engineers. The discussions consisted of free-hand conceptual drawings
of an aircraft with the British officials. Self was concerned that NAA had not
ever designed a fighter, insisting they obtain the drawings and study the
wind-tunnel test results for the P-40, before presenting them with detailed design
drawings based on the agreed concept. NAA purchased the drawings and data from
Curtiss for £56,000, confirming the purchase with the British Purchasing
Commission. The commission approved the resulting detailed design drawings,
signing the commencement of the Mustang project on 4 May 1940, and firmly ordering
320 on 29 May 1940. Prior to this, NAA only had a letter of intent for an order
of 320 aircraft. Curtiss engineers accused NAA of plagiarism.
The British Purchasing Commission stipulated
armament of four .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns (as used on the Tomahawk), a
unit cost of no more than $40,000, and delivery of the first production
aircraft by January 1941. In March 1940, 320 aircraft were ordered by Freeman,
who had become the executive head of the Ministry of Aircraft Production (MAP)
and the contract was promulgated on 24 April.
The NA-73X, which was designed by a team led
by lead engineer Edgar Schmued, followed the best conventional practice of the
era, designed for ease of mass manufacturing. The design included several new
features.
One was a wing designed using laminar flow airfoils, which were developed
co-operatively by NAA and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA). These airfoils generated low drag at high speeds.
During the development of the NA-73X, a wind-tunnel test of two wings, one
using NACA five-digit airfoils and the other using the new NAA/NACA 45–100
airfoils, was performed in the University of Washington Kirsten Wind Tunnel.
The results of this test showed the superiority of the wing designed with the
NAA/NACA 45–100 airfoils.
The other feature was a new cooling
arrangement positioned aft (single ducted water and oil radiators assembly)
that reduced the fuselage drag and effects on the wing. Later, after much
development, they discovered that the cooling assembly could take advantage of
the Meredith effect, in which heated air exited the radiator with a slight
amount of jet thrust. Because NAA lacked a suitable wind tunnel to test this
feature, it used the GALCIT 3.0 m (10 ft) wind tunnel at the California
Institute of Technology. This led to some controversy over whether the
Mustang's cooling system aerodynamics were developed by NAA's engineer Schmued
or by Curtiss, as NAA had purchased the complete set of P-40 wind tunnel data
and flight test reports. The NA-73X was also one of the first aircraft to have
a fuselage lofted mathematically using conic sections; this resulted in smooth,
low-drag surfaces. To aid production, the airframe was divided into five main
sections—forward, center, rear fuselage, and two wing halves—all of which were
fitted with wiring and piping before being joined.
The prototype NA-73X was rolled out in
September 1940, just 102 days after the order had been placed; it first flew on
26 October 1940, 149 days into the contract, an uncommonly short development
period even during the war. With test pilot Vance Breese at the controls, the
prototype handled well and accommodated an impressive fuel load. The aircraft's
three-section, semi-monocoque fuselage was constructed entirely of 24S aluminum
alloy (a type of Duralumin) to save weight. It was armed with four .30 caliber
(7.62 mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns in the wings and two .50 caliber (12.7
mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns mounted under the engine and firing through the
propeller arc using a gun-synchronizing gear.
While the USAAC could block any sales it
considered detrimental to the interests of the US, the NA-73 was considered to
be a special case because it had been designed at the behest of the British and
all dealings were directly between the BPC and NAA, and did not involve the US
Army or Wright Field in any way. In September 1940, a further 300 NA-73s were
ordered by the MAP. To ensure uninterrupted delivery, Colonel Oliver P. Echols
arranged with the Anglo-French Purchasing Commission to deliver the aircraft
and NAA gave two examples (41-038 and 41-039) to the USAAC for evaluation.
It is important to note that the Mustang I
(NA-73 and NA-83) and the Ia (NA-91), produced for the British, were not
equivalent to the P-51A which was a later model (NA-99). Two British Mustang Is
were held back by the USAAF and given the provisional model number XP-51. The
USAAF held back 57 Mustang Ia aircraft armed with 4 x 20mm Hispano cannon, from
the third British order, converting most of them to tactical reconnaissance
aircraft and designating them P-51-2/F-6A. North American retained the second
aircraft of this batch to help develop the P-51A.
The Allison engine in the Mustang I had a
single-stage supercharger that caused power to drop off rapidly above 15,000
feet (4,600 m). This made it unsuitable for use at the altitudes where combat
was taking place in Europe. Allison's attempts at developing a high-altitude
engine were underfunded, but produced the V-1710-45, which featured a
variable-speed auxiliary supercharger and developed 1,150 horsepower (860 kW)
at 22,400 feet (6,800 m). In November 1941, NAA studied the possibility of
using it, but fitting its excessive length in the Mustang would require extensive
airframe modifications and cause long production delays. In May 1942, following
positive reports from the RAF on the Mustang I's performance below 15,000 ft,
Ronald Harker, a test pilot for Rolls-Royce, suggested fitting a Merlin 61, as
fitted to the Spitfire Mk IX. The Merlin 61 had a two-speed, two-stage,
intercooled supercharger, designed by Stanley Hooker of Rolls-Royce. Both the
Merlin 61 and V-1710-39 were capable of about 1,570 horsepower (1,170 kW) war
emergency power at relatively low altitudes, but the Merlin developed 1,390
horsepower (1,040 kW) at 23,500 feet (7,200 m) versus the Allison's 1,150
horsepower (860 kW) at 11,800 feet (3,600 m), delivering an increase in top
speed from 390 mph (340 kn; 630 km/h) at ~15,000 feet (4,600 m) to an estimated
440 mph (380 kn; 710 km/h) at 28,100 feet (8,600 m). In the end the Merlin 61
was never fitted to the Mustang X, (or any other Mustang). The 65 series (a
medium altitude engine) was fitted to all Mustang X prototypes.
Initially, the Mustang's steadfast champion,
USAAC/F Assistant Air Attaché Major Thomas Hitchcock, was concerned that the
USAAF had little or no interest in the potential of the P-51A and its
development with the Merlin engine. He wrote: "Its development in this
theatre has suffered for various reasons. Sired by the English out of an
American mother, the Mustang has no parent in the Army Air Corps to appreciate
and push its good points. It does not fully satisfy good people on both sides
of the Atlantic who seem more interested in pointing with pride to the
development of a 100% national product..."
Nevertheless, during the British service
development program of the Mustang I at Rolls-Royce's airfield at Hucknall, a
close relationship was developed between NAA, the RAF Air Fighting Development
Unit and Rolls-Royce Flight Test Establishment at Hucknall.
Following extensive communication between
Hitchcock (based in England), Rolls Royce engineers and Phillip Legarra at NAA
regarding the promising outlook of a Merlin Mustang, along with the subsequent
work in progress by Rolls Royce on the Mustang X, NAA representatives including
Mustang designer Schmued visited the UK to examine and discuss the project in
detail.
The promising calculations and modification
progress by Rolls Royce led in July 1942 to a contract being let for two NAA
Merlin prototypes, briefly designated XP-78, but soon to become the XP-51B.
Based on the Packard V-1650-3 duplicating the Merlin 61's performance, NAA
estimated for the XP-78 a top speed of 445 mph (387 kn; 716 km/h) at 28,000
feet (8,500 m), and a service ceiling of 42,000 feet (13,000 m).
Initial flights of what was known to
Rolls-Royce as the Mustang X were completed at Hucknall in October 1942.
The first flight of the US version,
designated XP-51B took place in November 1942, but the USAAF had become so
interested in the Merlin Mustang project that an initial contract for 400
aircraft was placed three months beforehand in August. The conversion led to
production of the P-51B beginning at NAA's Inglewood, California, plant in June
1943, and P-51s started to become available to the 8th and 9th air forces in
the winter of 1943–1944. Conversion to the two-stage supercharged and
intercooled Merlin 60 series, over 350 lb (160 kg) heavier than the
single-stage Allison, driving a four-bladed Hamilton Standard propeller,
required moving the wing slightly forward to correct the aircraft's center of
gravity. After the USAAF, in July 1943, directed fighter aircraft manufacturers
to maximize internal fuel capacity, NAA calculated the P-51B's center of
gravity to be forward enough to include an additional 85 US gal (320 L; 71 imp
gal) fuel tank in the fuselage behind the pilot, greatly increasing the
aircraft's range over that of the earlier P-51A. NAA incorporated the tank in
the production of the P-51B-10, and supplied kits to retrofit it to all
existing P-51Bs.
Operational History
United Kingdom Operational Service
The Mustang was initially developed for the
RAF, which was its first user. As the first Mustangs were built to British
requirements, these aircraft used factory numbers and were not P-51s; the order
comprised 320 NA-73s, followed by 300 NA-83s, all of which were designated
Mustang Mark I by the RAF. The first RAF Mustangs supplied under Lend-Lease
were 93 Mk Ia designated as P-51s by the USAAF, followed by 50 P-51As used as
Mustang Mk IIs. Aircraft supplied to Britain under Lend-Lease were required for
accounting purposes to be on the USAAC's books before they could be supplied to
Britain, but the British Aircraft Purchasing Commission signed its first
contract for the North American NA-73 on 24 April 1940, before Lend-Lease was
in effect. Thus, the initial order for the P-51 Mustang (as it was later known)
was placed by the British under the "cash and carry" program, as
required by the US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s.
After the arrival of the initial aircraft in
the UK in October 1941, the first squadron of Mustang Mk Is entered service in
January 1942, the first being No. 26 Squadron RAF. Due to poor high-altitude
performance, the Mustangs were used by Army Co-operation Command, rather than
Fighter Command, and were used for tactical reconnaissance and ground-attack
duties. On 10 May 1942, Mustangs first flew over France, near Berck-sur-Mer. On
27 July 1942, 16 RAF Mustangs undertook their first long-range reconnaissance
mission over Germany. During the amphibious Dieppe Raid on the French coast (19
August 1942), four British and Canadian Mustang squadrons, including 26
Squadron, saw action covering the assault on the ground. By 1943–1944, British
Mustangs were used extensively to seek out V-1 flying bomb sites. The last RAF
Mustang Mk I and Mustang Mk II aircraft were struck off charge in 1945.
Army Co-operation Command used the Mustang's
superior speed and long range to conduct low-altitude "Rhubarb" raids
over continental Europe, sometimes penetrating German airspace. The V-1710
engine ran smoothly at 1,100 rpm, versus 1,600 for the Merlin, enabling long
flights over water at 50 ft (15 m) altitude before approaching the enemy
coastline. Over land, these flights followed a zig-zag course, turning every
six minutes to foil enemy attempts at plotting an interception. During the
first 18 months of Rhubarb raids, RAF Mustang Mk.Is and Mk.Ias destroyed or
heavily damaged 200 locomotives, over 200 canal barges, and an unknown number
of enemy aircraft parked on the ground, for a loss of eight Mustangs. At sea
level, the Mustangs were able to outrun all enemy aircraft encountered. The RAF
gained a significant performance enhancement at low altitude by removing or
resetting the engine's manifold pressure regulator to allow overboosting,
raising output as high as 1,780 horsepower at 70 in Hg. In December 1942,
Allison approved only 1,570 horsepower at 60 in Hg manifold pressure for the
V-1710-39.
The RAF later operated 308 P-51Bs and 636
P-51Cs, which were known in RAF service as Mustang Mk IIIs; the first units
converted to the type in late 1943 and early 1944. Mustang Mk III units were
operational until the end of World War II, though many units had already
converted to the Mustang Mk IV (P-51D) and Mk IVa (P-51K) (828 in total,
comprising 282 Mk IV and 600 Mk IVa). As all except the earliest aircraft were
obtained under Lend-Lease, all Mustang aircraft still on RAF charge at the end
of the war were either returned to the USAAF "on paper" or retained by
the RAF for scrapping. The last RAF Mustangs were retired from service in 1947.
US Operational Service
Prewar Theory
Prewar doctrine was based on the idea
"the bomber will always get through". Despite RAF and Luftwaffe
experience with daylight bombing, the USAAF still incorrectly believed in 1942
that tightly packed formations of bombers would have so much firepower that
they could fend off fighters on their own. Fighter escort was a low priority,
but when the concept was discussed in 1941, the Lockheed P-38 Lightning was
considered to be most appropriate, as it had the speed and range. Another
school of thought favored a heavily up-armed "gunship" conversion of
a strategic bomber. A single-engined, high-speed fighter with the range of a
bomber was thought to be an engineering impossibility.
Eighth Air Force Bomber Operations 1942–1943
The 8th Air Force started operations from
Britain in August 1942. At first, because of the limited scale of operations,
no conclusive evidence showed American doctrine was failing. In the 26
operations flown to the end of 1942, the loss rate had been under 2%.
In January 1943, at the Casablanca
Conference, the Allies formulated the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) plan for
"round-the-clock" bombing – USAAF daytime operations complementing
the RAF nighttime raids on industrial centers. In June 1943, the Combined
Chiefs of Staff issued the Pointblank Directive to destroy the Luftwaffe's
capacity before the planned invasion of Europe, putting the CBO into full implementation.
German daytime fighter efforts were, at that time, focused on the Eastern Front
and several other distant locations. Initial efforts by the 8th met limited and
unorganized resistance, but with every mission, the Luftwaffe moved more
aircraft to the west and quickly improved their battle direction. In late 1943,
the 8th Air Force's heavy bombers conducted a series of deep penetration raids
into Germany, beyond the range of escort fighters. The Schweinfurt–Regensburg
mission in August lost 60 B-17s of a force of 376, the 14 October attack lost
77 of a force of 291—26% of the attacking force.
For the US, the very concept of
self-defending bombers was called into question, but instead of abandoning
daylight raids and turning to night bombing, as the RAF suggested, they chose
other paths; at first, bombers converted to gunships (the Boeing YB-40) were
believed to be able to escort the bomber formations, but when the concept
proved to be unsuccessful, thoughts then turned to the Lockheed P-38 Lightning.
In early 1943, the USAAF also decided that the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and
P-51B be considered for the roles of smaller escort fighters, and in July, a
report stated that the P-51B was "the most promising plane" with an
endurance of 4 hours 45 minutes with the standard internal fuel of 184 gallons
plus 150 gallons carried externally. In August, a P-51B was fitted with an
extra internal 85-gallon tank, but problems with longitudinal stability
occurred, so some compromises in performance with the full tank were made. Since
the fuel from the fuselage tank was used during the initial stages of a
mission, the fuel tank would be fitted in all Mustangs destined for VIII
Fighter Command.
P-51 Introduction
The P-51 Mustang was a solution to the need
for an effective bomber escort. It used a common, reliable engine and had
internal space for a larger-than-average fuel load. With external fuel tanks,
it could accompany the bombers from England to Germany and back.
By the time the Pointblank offensive resumed
in early 1944, matters had changed. Bomber escort defenses were initially
layered, using the shorter-range P-38s and P-47s to escort the bombers during
the initial stages of the raid before handing over to the P-51s when they were
forced to turn for home. This provided continuous coverage during the raid. The
Mustang was so clearly superior to earlier US designs that the 8th Air Force
began to steadily switch its fighter groups to the Mustang, first swapping
arriving P-47 groups to the 9th Air Force in exchange for those that were using
P-51s, then gradually converting its Thunderbolt and Lightning groups. By the
end of 1944, 14 of its 15 groups flew Mustangs.
The Luftwaffe's twin-engined Messerschmitt Bf
110 heavy fighters brought up to deal with the bombers proved to be easy prey
for the Mustangs, and had to be quickly withdrawn from combat. The Focke-Wulf
Fw 190A, already suffering from poor high-altitude performance, was
outperformed by the Mustang at the B-17's altitude, and when laden with heavy
bomber-hunting weapons as a replacement for the more vulnerable twin-engined
Zerstörer heavy fighters, it suffered heavy losses. The Messerschmitt Bf 109
had comparable performance at high altitudes, but its lightweight airframe was
even more greatly affected by increases in armament. The Mustang's much lighter
armament, tuned for anti-fighter combat, allowed it to overcome these
single-engined opponents.
Fighting the Luftwaffe
At the start of 1944, Major General James
Doolittle, the new commander of the 8th Air Force, released most fighters from
the requirement of flying in close formation with the bombers, allowing them
free rein to attack the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found. The aim was to
achieve air supremacy. Mustang groups were sent far ahead of the bombers in a
"fighter sweep" to intercept German fighters. Bomber crews
complained, but by June, supremacy was achieved.
The Luftwaffe answered with the
Gefechtsverband ("battle formation"). This consisted of a Sturmgruppe
of heavily armed and armored Fw 190As escorted by two Begleitgruppen of Bf
109s, whose task was to keep the Mustangs away from the Fw 190s as they
attacked the bombers. This strategy proved to be problematic, as the large
German formation took a long time to assemble and was difficult to maneuver. It
was often intercepted by the P-51 "fighter sweeps" before it could
attack the bombers. However, German attacks against bombers could be effective
when they did occur; the bomber-destroyer Fw 190As swept in from astern and
often pressed their attacks to within 90 m (100 yd).
While not always able to avoid contact with
the escorts, the threat of mass attacks and later the "company front"
(eight abreast) assaults by armored Sturmgruppe Fw 190As brought an urgency to
attacking the Luftwaffe wherever it could be found, either in the air or on the
ground. Beginning in late February 1944, 8th Air Force fighter units began
systematic strafing attacks on German airfields with increasing frequency and
intensity, with the objective of gaining air supremacy over the Normandy
battlefield. In general, these were conducted by units returning from escort
missions, but beginning in March, many groups also were assigned airfield
attacks instead of bomber support. The P-51, particularly with the advent of
the K-14 gyro gunsight and the development of "Clobber Colleges" for
the training of fighter pilots in late 1944, was a decisive element in Allied
countermeasures against the Jagdverbände.
The numerical superiority of the USAAF
fighters, superb flying characteristics of the P-51, and pilot proficiency
helped cripple the Luftwaffe's fighter force. As a result, the fighter threat
to the US, and later British, bombers was greatly diminished by July 1944. The
RAF, long proponents of night bombing for protection, were able to reopen
daylight bombing in 1944 as a result of the crippling of the Luftwaffe fighter
arm. Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, commander of the Luftwaffe during the war,
was quoted as saying, "When I saw Mustangs over Berlin, I knew the jig was
up."
Beyond Pointblank
On 15 April 1944, VIII Fighter Command began
"Operation Jackpot", attacks on Luftwaffe fighter airfields. As the
efficacy of these missions increased, the number of fighters at the German
airbases fell to the point where they were no longer considered worthwhile
targets. On 21 May, targets were expanded to include railways, locomotives, and
other rolling stock used by the Germans to transport materiel and troops, in
missions dubbed "Chattanooga". The P-51 excelled at this mission, although
losses were much higher on strafing missions than in air-to-air combat, partially
because the Mustang's liquid-cooled engine (particularly its liquid coolant system)
was vulnerable to small-arms fire, unlike the air-cooled R-2800 radials of its
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt stablemates based in England, regularly tasked with
ground-strafing missions.
Given the overwhelming Allied air
superiority, the Luftwaffe put its effort into the development of aircraft of
such high performance that they could operate with impunity, but which also
made bomber attack much more difficult, merely from the flight velocities they
achieved. Foremost among these were the Messerschmitt Me 163B point-defense
rocket interceptors, which started their operations with JG 400 near the end of
July 1944, and the longer-endurance Messerschmitt Me 262A jet fighter, first
flying with the Gruppe-strength Kommando Nowotny unit by the end of September
1944. In action, the Me 163 proved to be more dangerous to the Luftwaffe than
to the Allies and was never a serious threat. The Me 262A was a serious threat,
but attacks on their airfields neutralized them. The pioneering Junkers Jumo
004 axial-flow jet engines of the Me 262As needed careful nursing by their
pilots, and these aircraft were particularly vulnerable during takeoff and
landing. Lt. Chuck Yeager of the 357th Fighter Group was one of the first
American pilots to shoot down an Me 262, which he caught during its landing
approach. On 7 October 1944, Lt. Urban L. Drew of the 361st Fighter Group shot
down two Me 262s that were taking off, while on the same day, Lt. Col. Hubert
Zemke, who had transferred to the Mustang-equipped 479th Fighter Group, shot
down what he thought was a Bf 109, only to have his gun camera film reveal that
it may have been an Me 262. On 25 February 1945, Mustangs of the 55th Fighter
Group surprised an entire Staffel of Me 262As at takeoff and destroyed six
jets.
The Mustang also proved useful against the
V-1s launched toward London. P-51B/Cs, using 150-octane fuel, were fast enough
to catch the V-1 and operated in concert with shorter-range aircraft such as
advanced marks of the Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Tempest.
By 8 May 1945, the 8th, 9th, and 15th Air
Force's P-51 groups
claimed some 4,950 aircraft shot down (about half of all USAAF claims in the
European theater, the most claimed by any Allied fighter in air-to-air combat)
and 4,131 destroyed on the ground. Losses were about 2,520 aircraft. The 8th
Air Force's 4th Fighter Group was the top-scoring fighter group in Europe, with
1,016 enemy aircraft claimed destroyed. This included 550 claimed in aerial
combat and 466 on the ground.
In air combat, the top-scoring P-51 units
(both of which exclusively flew Mustangs) were the 357th Fighter Group of the
8th Air Force with 565 air-to-air combat victories and the 9th Air Force's
354th Fighter Group with 664, which made it one of the top-scoring fighter
groups. The top Mustang ace was the USAAF's George Preddy, whose final tally
stood at 26.83 victories (a number that includes shared one half- and one third
victory credits), 23 of which were scored with the P-51. Preddy was shot down
and killed by friendly fire on Christmas Day 1944 during the Battle of the
Bulge.
In China and the Pacific Theater
In early 1945, P-51C, D, and K variants also
joined the Chinese Nationalist Air Force. These Mustangs were provided to the
3rd, 4th, and 5th Fighter Groups and used to attack Japanese targets in
occupied areas of China. The P-51 became the most capable fighter in China,
while the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force used the Nakajima Ki-84 Hayate
against it.
The P-51 was a relative latecomer to the
Pacific theater, due largely to the need for the aircraft in Europe, although
the P-38's twin-engined design was considered a safety advantage for long,
over-water flights. The first P-51s were deployed in the Far East later in
1944, operating in close-support and escort missions, as well as tactical
photoreconnaissance. As the war in Europe wound down, the P-51 became more
common. With the capture of Iwo Jima, USAAF P-51 Mustang fighters of the VII
Fighter Command were stationed on that island starting in March 1945, being initially
tasked with escorting Boeing B-29 Superfortress missions against the Japanese
homeland.
The command's last major raid of May was a
daylight incendiary attack on Yokohama on 29 May conducted by 517 B-29s
escorted by 101 P-51s. This force was intercepted by 150 A6M Zero fighters,
sparking an intense air battle in which five B-29s were shot down and another
175 damaged. In return, the P-51 pilots claimed 26 "kills" and 23
"probables" for the loss of three fighters. The 454 B-29s that
reached Yokohama struck the city's main business district and destroyed 6.9
square miles (18 km2) of buildings; over 1000 Japanese were killed.
Overall, the attacks in May destroyed 94 square miles (240 km2) of
buildings, which was equivalent to one-seventh of Japan's total urban area. The
minister of home affairs, Iwao Yamazaki, concluded after these raids that
Japan's civil defense arrangements were "considered to be futile". On
the first day of June, 521 B-29s escorted by 148 P-51s were dispatched in a
daylight raid against Osaka. While en route to the city, the Mustangs flew
through thick clouds, and 27 of the fighters were destroyed in collisions. Nevertheless,
458 heavy bombers and 27 P-51s reached the city, and the bombardment killed
3,960 Japanese and destroyed 3.15 square miles (8.2 km2) of
buildings. On 5 June 473 B-29s struck Kobe by day and destroyed 4.35 square
miles (11.3 km2) of buildings for the loss of 11 bombers. A force of
409 B-29s attacked Osaka again on 7 June; during this attack, 2.21 square miles
(5.7 km2) of buildings were burnt out and the Americans did not
suffer any losses. Osaka was bombed for the fourth time that month, on 15 June,
when 444 B-29s destroyed 1.9 square miles (4.9 km2) of the city and
another 0.59 square miles (1.5 km2) of nearby Amagasaki; 300,000
houses were destroyed in Osaka. This attack marked the end of the first phase
of XXI Bomber Command's attack on Japan's cities. During May and June, the
bombers had destroyed much of the country's six largest cities, killing between
112,000 and 126,762 people and rendering millions homeless. The widespread
destruction and high number of casualties from these raids caused many Japanese
to realize that their country's military was no longer able to defend the home
islands. American losses were low compared to Japanese casualties; 136 B-29s
were downed during the campaign. In Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Yokohama, Kobe, and
Kawasaki, "over 126,762 people were killed ... and a million and a half
dwellings and over 105 square miles (270 km2) of urban space were
destroyed." In Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya, "the areas leveled (almost
100 square miles (260 km2)) exceeded the areas destroyed in all
German cities by both the American and British air forces (about 79 square
miles (200 km2))."
P-51s also conducted a series of independent
ground-attack missions against targets in the home islands. The first of these
operations took place on 16 April, when 57 P-51s strafed Kanoya Air Field in
Kyushu. In operations conducted between 26 April and 22 June, the American
fighter pilots claimed the destruction of 64 Japanese aircraft and damage to
another 180 on the ground, as well as a further 10 shot down in flight; these claims
were lower than the American planners had expected, however, and the raids were
considered unsuccessful. USAAF losses were 11 P-51s to enemy action and seven
to other causes.
Due to the lack of Japanese air opposition to
the American bomber raids, VII Fighter Command was solely tasked with
ground-attack missions from July. These raids were frequently made against
airfields to destroy aircraft being held in reserve to attack the expected
Allied invasion fleet. While the P-51 pilots only occasionally encountered
Japanese fighters in the air, the airfields were protected by antiaircraft
batteries and barrage balloons. By the end of the war, VII Fighter Command had
conducted 51 ground-attack raids, of which 41 were considered successful. The
fighter pilots claimed to have destroyed or damaged 1,062 aircraft and 254
ships, along with large numbers of buildings and railway rolling stock.
American losses were 91 pilots killed and 157 Mustangs destroyed.
Medal of Honor Recipients
Two P-51 pilots received the Medal of Honor
during World War II:
USAAF Lt Col. James H. Howard of the 356th
Fighter Squadron, 354th Fighter Group was awarded the Medal of Honor for his
action during a bomber escort mission near Oschersleben, Germany on 11 January
1944, flying P-51B, serial number 43-6315 nicknamed "Ding Hao".
Despite being outnumbered, Howard shot down three German planes and continued
to defend the bombers even when his guns went out of action and fuel supply
became dangerously low.
USAAF Maj. William A. Shomo of the 82nd
Reconnaissance Squadron, 71st Reconnaissance Group was awarded the Medal of
Honor for his action during a mission over Luzon, Philippines on 11 January
1945, flying an F-6D, the armed photo reconnaissance variant of the P-51,
serial number 44-14841 nicknamed "Snooks the 5th". On that mission,
Shomo shot down seven Japanese planes and became an "ace in a day".
Pilot Observations
Chief Naval Test Pilot and C.O. Captured
Enemy Aircraft Flight Capt. Eric Brown, RN, tested the Mustang at RAE
Farnborough in March 1944 and noted:
The Mustang was a good fighter and the best escort due to its
incredible range, make no mistake about it. It was also the best American
dogfighter. But the laminar-flow wing fitted to the Mustang could be a little
tricky. It could not by any means out-turn a Spitfire. No way. It had a good
rate-of-roll, better than the Spitfire, so I would say the plusses to the
Spitfire and the Mustang just about equate. If I were in a dogfight, I'd prefer
to be flying the Spitfire. The problem was I wouldn't like to be in a dogfight
near Berlin, because I could never get home to Britain in a Spitfire!
The US Air Forces, Flight Test Engineering,
assessed the Mustang B on 24 April 1944 thus:
The rate of climb is good and the high speed in level flight is exceptionally
good at all altitudes, from sea level to 40,000 feet. The airplane is very
maneuverable with good controllability at indicated speeds up to 400 MPH [sic].
The stability about all axes is good and the rate of roll is excellent;
however, the radius of turn is fairly large for a fighter. The cockpit layout
is excellent, but visibility is poor on the ground and only fair in level
flight.
Kurt Bühligen, the third-highest scoring
German fighter pilot of World War II's Western Front (with 112 confirmed
victories, three against Mustangs), later stated:
We would out-turn the P-51 and the other American fighters, with the Bf
109 or the Fw 190. Their turn rate was about the same. The P-51 was faster than
us, but our munitions and cannon were better.
German fighter ace Heinz Bär said that the
P-51:
… was perhaps the most difficult of all Allied aircraft to meet in
combat. It was fast, maneuverable, hard to see, and difficult to identify
because it resembled the Me 109.
After World War II
In the aftermath of World War II, the USAAF
consolidated much of its wartime combat force and selected the P-51 as a
"standard" piston-engined fighter, while other types, such as the
P-38 and P-47, were withdrawn or given substantially reduced roles. As the more
advanced (P-80 and P-84) jet fighters were introduced, the P-51 was also
relegated to secondary duties.
In 1947, the newly formed USAF Strategic Air
Command employed Mustangs alongside F-6 Mustangs and F-82 Twin Mustangs, due to
their range capabilities. In 1948, the designation P-51 (P for pursuit) was
changed to F-51 (F for fighter) and the existing F designator for photographic
reconnaissance aircraft was dropped because of a new designation scheme
throughout the USAF. Aircraft still in service in the USAF or Air National
Guard (ANG) when the system was changed included: F-51B, F-51D, F-51K, RF-51D
(formerly F-6D), RF-51K (formerly F-6K) and TRF-51D (two-seat trainer
conversions of F-6Ds). They remained in service from 1946 through 1951. By
1950, although Mustangs continued in service with the USAF after the war, the
majority of the USAF's Mustangs had become surplus to requirements and placed
in storage, while some were transferred to the Air Force Reserve and the ANG.
From the start of the Korean War, the Mustang
once again proved useful. A "substantial number" of stored or
in-service F-51Ds were shipped, via aircraft carriers, to the combat zone, and
were used by the USAF, the South African Air Force, and the Republic of Korea
Air Force (ROKAF). The F-51 was used for ground attack, fitted with rockets and
bombs, and photo reconnaissance, rather than being as interceptors or
"pure" fighters, where it was already surpassed by early jets. After
the first North Korean invasion, USAF units were forced to fly from bases in
Japan and the F-51Ds, with their long range and endurance, could attack targets
in Korea that short-ranged F-80 jets could not. Because of the vulnerable
liquid cooling system, however, the F-51s sustained heavy losses to ground
fire. Due to its lighter structure and a shortage of spare parts, the newer,
faster F-51H was not used in Korea. On 5 August 1950, Major Louis J. Sebille of
the 67th Fighter-Bomber Squadron attacked a North Korean armored column
advancing on United Nations military units during the Battle of Pusan
Perimeter. Though his aircraft was heavily damaged and he was wounded during
the first pass on the column, he turned his F-51 around and deliberately
crashed into the convoy at the cost of his life, and was posthumously awarded
the Medal of Honor.
Mustangs continued flying with USAF and ROKAF
fighter-bomber units on close support and interdiction missions in Korea until
1953 when they were largely replaced as fighter-bombers by USAF F-84s and by
United States Navy (USN) Grumman F9F Panthers. Other air forces and units using
the Mustang included the Royal Australian Air Force's 77 Squadron, which flew
Australian-built Mustangs as part of British Commonwealth Forces Korea. The
Mustangs were replaced by Gloster Meteor F8s in 1951. The South African Air
Force's 2 Squadron used US-built Mustangs as part of the US 18th Fighter Bomber
Wing and had suffered heavy losses by 1953, after which 2 Squadron converted to
the F-86 Sabre.
F-51s flew in the Air Force Reserve and ANG
throughout the 1950s. The last American USAF Mustang was F-51D-30-NA AF serial
no. 44-74936, which was finally withdrawn from service with the West Virginia
Air National Guard's 167th Fighter Interceptor Squadron in January 1957 and
retired to what was then called the Air Force Central Museum, although it was
briefly reactivated to fly at the 50th anniversary of the Air Force Aerial
Firepower Demonstration at the Air Proving Ground, Eglin AFB, Florida, on 6 May
1957. This aircraft, painted as P-51D-15-NA serial no. 44-15174, is on display
at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson AFB, in
Dayton, Ohio.
The final withdrawal of the Mustang from USAF
dumped hundreds of P-51s onto the civilian market. The rights to the Mustang
design were purchased from North American by the Cavalier Aircraft Corporation,
which attempted to market the surplus Mustang aircraft in the US and overseas.
In 1967 and again in 1972, the USAF procured batches of remanufactured Mustangs
from Cavalier, most of them destined for air forces in South America and Asia
that were participating in the Military Assistance Program (MAP). These
aircraft were remanufactured from existing original F-51D airframes fitted with
new V-1650-7 engines, a new radio, tall F-51H-type vertical tails, and a stronger
wing that could carry six 12.7 mm (0.50 in) machine guns and a total of eight
underwing hardpoints. Two 1,000-pound (450 kg) bombs and six 127 mm (5 in)
rockets could be carried. They all had an original F-51D-type canopy but
carried a second seat for an observer behind the pilot. One additional Mustang
was a two-seat, dual-control TF-51D (67-14866) with an enlarged canopy and only
four wing guns. Although these remanufactured Mustangs were intended for sale
to South American and Asian nations through the MAP, they were delivered to the
USAF with full USAF markings. They were, however, allocated new serial numbers
(67-14862/14866, 67-22579/22582 and 72-1526/1541).
The last US military use of the F-51 was in
1968 when the US Army employed a vintage F-51D (44-72990) as a chase aircraft
for the Lockheed YAH-56 Cheyenne armed helicopter project. This aircraft was so
successful that the Army ordered two F-51Ds from Cavalier in 1968 for use at
Fort Rucker as chase planes. They were assigned the serials 68-15795 and
68-15796. These F-51s had wingtip fuel tanks and were unarmed. Following the
end of the Cheyenne program, these two chase aircraft were used for other
projects. One of them (68-15795) was fitted with a 106 mm recoilless rifle for
evaluation of the weapon's value in attacking fortified ground targets.
Cavalier Mustang 68-15796 survives at the Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin AFB,
Florida, displayed indoors in World War II markings.
The F-51 was adopted by many foreign air
forces and continued to be an effective fighter into the mid-1980s with smaller
air arms. The last Mustang ever downed in battle occurred during Operation
Power Pack in the Dominican Republic in 1965, with the last aircraft finally
being retired by the Dominican Air Force in 1984.
Service with Other Air Forces
After World War II, the P-51 Mustang served
in the air arms of more than 25 nations. During the war, a Mustang cost about
$51,000, while many hundreds were sold postwar for the nominal price of one
dollar to signatories of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance,
ratified in Rio de Janeiro in 1947.
These countries used the P-51 Mustang:
Australia
In November 1944, 3 Squadron RAAF became the
first Royal Australian Air Force unit to use Mustangs. At the time of its conversion
from the P-40 to the Mustang, the squadron was based in Italy with the RAF's
First Tactical Air Force.
3 Squadron was renumbered 4 Squadron after
returning to Australia from Italy, and converted to P-51Ds. Several other
Australian or Pacific-based squadrons converted to either CAC-built Mustangs or
to imported P-51Ks from July 1945, having been equipped with P-40s or
Boomerangs for wartime service; these units were: 76, 77, 82, 83, 84 and 86
squadrons. Only 17 Mustangs reached the RAAF's First Tactical Air Force
front-line squadrons by the time World War II ended in August 1945.
76, 77 and 82 squadrons were formed into 81
Fighter Wing of the British Commonwealth Air Force, which was part of the
British Commonwealth Occupation Force stationed in Japan from February 1946. 77
Squadron used its P-51s extensively during the first months of the Korean War,
before converting to Gloster Meteor jets.
Five reserve units from the Citizen Air Force
also operated Mustangs. 21 "City of Melbourne" Squadron, based in the
state of Victoria; 22 "City of Sydney" Squadron, based in New South
Wales; 23 "City of Brisbane" Squadron, based in Queensland; 24
"City of Adelaide" Squadron, based in South Australia; and 25
"City of Perth" Squadron, based in Western Australia; all of these
units were equipped with CAC Mustangs, rather than P-51D or Ks. The last
Mustangs were retired from these units in 1960 when CAF units adopted a non-flying
role.
Bolivia
Nine Cavalier F-51D (including the two
TF-51s) were given to Bolivia, under a program called Peace Condor.
Canada
Canada had five squadrons equipped with
Mustangs during World War II. RCAF 400, 414, and 430 squadrons flew Mustang Mk
Is (1942–1944) and 441 and 442 squadrons flew Mustang Mk IIIs and IVAs in 1945.
Postwar, a total of 150 Mustang P-51Ds were purchased and served in two regular
(416 "Lynx" and 417 "City of Windsor") and six auxiliary
fighter squadrons (402 "City of Winnipeg", 403 "City of
Calgary", 420 "City of London", 424 "City of
Hamilton", 442 "City of Vancouver" and 443 "City of New
Westminster"). The Mustangs were declared obsolete in 1956, but
special-duty versions served on into the early 1960s.
Republic of China
The Chinese Nationalist Air Force obtained
the P-51 during the late Sino-Japanese War to fight against the Japanese. After
the war, Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government used the planes against
insurgent Communist forces. The Nationalists retreated to Taiwan in 1949.
Pilots supporting Chiang brought most of the Mustangs with them, where the
aircraft became part of the island's defense arsenal.
People's Republic of China
The Communist Chinese captured 39 P-51s from
the Nationalists while they were retreating to Taiwan. In August 1949, the
People's Liberation Army Air Force formed its first P-51 squadron at Beijing
Nanyuan Airport and were tasked of the defending Beijing's airspace from
Nationalist Air Force aircraft. On 1 October 1949, when Mao Zedong proclaimed
the founding of the People's Republic of China, nine P-51s conducted a fly-past
during the military parade in Beijing. By 1950, when Soviet Union began
supplying modern military equipment to China, surviving P-51s were relegated to
PLAAF's aviation school and 13 P-51s were modified as two-seat trainers. By
September 1953, most P-51s were retired from service and only eight P-51s
remained in service to teach Ilyushin Il-10 pilots on how to taxi aircraft.
Costa Rica
The Costa Rican Air Force flew four P-51Ds
from 1955 to 1964.
Cuba
In November 1958, three US-registered
civilian P-51D Mustangs were illegally flown separately from Miami to Cuba, on
delivery to the rebel forces of the 26th of July Movement, then headed by Fidel
Castro during the Cuban Revolution. One of the Mustangs was damaged during
delivery and none of them were used operationally. After the success of the
revolution in January 1959, with other rebel aircraft plus those of the
existing Cuban government forces, they were adopted into the Fuerza Aérea
Revolucionaria. Due to increasing US restrictions and lack of spares and
maintenance experience, they never achieved operational status. At the time of
the Bay of Pigs invasion, the two intact Mustangs were already effectively
grounded at Campo Columbia and at Santiago. After the failed invasion, they
were placed on display with other symbols of "revolutionary struggle"
and one remains on display at the Museo del Aire.
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic was the largest Latin
American air force to employ the P-51D, with six aircraft acquired in 1948, 44
ex-Swedish F-51Ds purchased in 1948, and a further Mustang obtained from an
unknown source. It was the last nation to have any Mustangs in service, with
some remaining in use as late as 1984. Nine of the final 10 aircraft were sold
back to American collectors in 1988.
El Salvador
The Salvadoran Air Force (Fuerza Aérea
Salvadoreña or FAS) purchased five Cavalier Mustang IIs (and one dual-control
Cavalier TF-51) that featured wingtip fuel tanks to increase combat range and
up-rated Merlin engines. Seven P-51D Mustangs were also in service. They were
used during the 1969 Football War against Honduras, the last time the P-51 was
used in combat. One of them, FAS-404, was shot down by a Vought F4U-5 Corsair
flown by Captain Fernando Soto in the last aerial combat between piston-engined
fighters in the world.
France
In late 1944, the first French unit began its
transition to reconnaissance Mustangs. In January 1945, the Tactical
Reconnaissance Squadron 2/33 of the French Air Force took their F-6Cs and F-6Ds
over Germany on photographic mapping missions. The Mustangs remained in service
until the early 1950s, when they were replaced by jet fighters.
Germany
Several P-51s were captured by the Luftwaffe
as Beuteflugzeug ("captured aircraft") following crash landings.
These aircraft were subsequently repaired and test-flown by the Zirkus
Rosarius, or Rosarius Staffel, the official Erprobungskommando of the Luftwaffe
High Command, for combat evaluation at Göttingen. The aircraft were repainted
with German markings and bright yellow noses, tails, and bellies for identification.
P-51B/P-51Cs – including examples marked with Luftwaffe Geschwaderkennung codes
T9+CK, T9+FK, T9+HK, and T9+PK (with the "T9" prefix not known to be
officially assigned to any existing Luftwaffe formation from their own records,
outside of the photos of Zirkus Rosarius–flown aircraft)—with a total of three
captured P-51Ds were also flown by the unit. Some of these P-51s were found by
Allied forces at the end of the war; others crashed during testing. The Mustang
is also listed in the appendix to the novel KG 200 as having been flown by the
German secret operations unit KG 200, which tested, evaluated, and sometimes
clandestinely operated captured enemy aircraft during World War II.
Guatemala
The Guatemalan Air Force had 30 P-51D Mustangs
in service from 1954 to the early 1970s.
Haiti
Haiti had four P-51D Mustangs when President
Paul Eugène Magloire was in power from 1950 to 1956, with the last retired in
1973–1974 and sold for spares to the Dominican Republic.
Indonesia
Indonesia acquired 26 P-51D/Ks from the
departing Netherlands East Indies Air Force in 1949–1950 and later received 35
P-51Ds from the United States in 1960–1961. The Mustangs were used against
numerous rebellions during the 1950s, such as the CIA-backed Permesta rebels in
1958–1961. During this period, the Mustang scored the first and (as of 2022)
the only aerial victory of the Indonesian Air Force, when on 18 May 1958, a
P-51D Mustang piloted by Capt. Ignatius Dewanto shot down a Permesta's
Revolutionary Air Force B-26 Invader piloted by Allen Lawrence Pope near Ambon.
They were also used against Commonwealth (RAF, RAAF, and RNZAF) forces during
the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in the early 1960s. Indonesia received a
shipment of five or seven Cavalier II Mustangs and one TF-51D (without tip
tanks) delivered in 1972–1973 as part of "Peace Pony" program under
the Mutual Defense Assistance Act. The last time Mustangs were deployed for military
purposes was during the "Wibawa V" exercise at Mount Lawu, Magetan in
February 1975. The Indonesian Mustangs were also used for filming Janur Kuning,
which was released in 1980. The Mustangs were replaced in 1976.
Israel
A few P-51 Mustangs were illegally bought by
Israel in 1948, crated, and smuggled into the country as agricultural equipment
for use in the 1947–1949 Palestine war, serving alongside upwards of 23 Avia
S-199 fighters (Czech-built Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs) in Israeli service, with
the Mustangs quickly establishing themselves as the best fighter in the Israeli
inventory. Further aircraft were bought from Sweden and were replaced by jets
at the end of the 1950s, but not before the type was used in the Suez Crisis,
at the opening of Operation Kadesh. In conjunction with a surprise parachute
drop at the Mitla Pass, four P-51s were specially detailed to cut telephone and
telegraph wires using their wings in extreme low level runs, which resulted in
major interruptions to Egyptian communications.
Italy
Italy was a postwar operator of P-51Ds;
deliveries were slowed by the Korean War, but between September 1947 and
January 1951, by MDAP count, 173 examples were delivered. They were used in all
the AMI fighter units: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 51 Stormo (wing), plus some employed
in schools and experimental units. Considered a "glamorous" fighter,
P-51s were even used as personal aircraft by several Italian commanders. Some
restrictions were placed on its use due to unfavorable flying characteristics.
Handling had to be done with much care when fuel tanks were fully used, and
several aerobatic maneuvers were forbidden. Overall, the P-51D was highly rated
even compared to the other primary postwar fighter in Italian service, the
Supermarine Spitfire, partly because these P-51Ds were in very good condition
in contrast to all other Allied fighters supplied to Italy. Phasing out of the
Mustang began in mid-1958.
Japan
The P-51C-11-NT Evalina, marked as
"278" (former USAAF serial: 44-10816) and flown by 26th FS, 51st FG,
was hit by gunfire on 16 January 1945 and belly-landed on Suchon Airfield in
China, which was held by the Japanese. The Japanese repaired the aircraft,
roughly applied Hinomaru roundels and flew the aircraft to the Fussa evaluation
center (now Yokota Air Base) in Japan.
Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air
Force received 40 P-51Ds and flew them in the course of the Indonesian National
Revolution, particularly during the two Dutch police actions: Operation Product
in 1947 and Operation Kraai in 1948–1949. When the conflict was over, Indonesia
received 26 of these Mustangs.
New Zealand
New Zealand ordered 370 P-51 Mustangs to
supplement its F4U Corsairs in the Pacific Ocean Areas theater. Scheduled
deliveries were for an initial batch of 30 P-51Ds, followed by 137 more P-51Ds
and 203 P-51Ms. The original 30 were being shipped as the war ended in August
1945; these were stored in their packing cases, and the order for the
additional Mustangs was canceled. In 1951, the stored Mustangs entered service
in 1 (Auckland), 2 (Wellington), 3 (Canterbury), and 4 (Otago) squadrons of the
Territorial Air Force (TAF). The Mustangs remained in service until they were
prematurely retired in August 1955 following a series of problems with
undercarriage and coolant-system corrosion problems. Four Mustangs served on as
target tugs until the TAF was disbanded in 1957. RNZAF pilots in the Royal Air
Force also flew the P-51 and at least one New Zealand pilot scored victories
over Europe while on loan to a USAAF P-51 squadron.
Nicaragua
The Nicaraguan National Guard purchased 26
P-51D Mustangs from Sweden in 1954 and later received 30 P-51D Mustangs from
the US together with two TF-51 models from MAP after 1954. All aircraft of this
type were retired from service by 1964.
Philippines
The Philippines acquired 103 P-51D Mustangs
after World War II, operated by the 6th "Cobras", 7th
"Bulldogs" and 8th "Scorpions" tactical fighter squadrons
of the 5th Fighter Wing. These became the backbone of the postwar Philippine
Army Air Corps and Philippine Air Force, and were used extensively during the
Huk campaign, fighting against communist insurgents, as well as the suppression
of Moro rebels led by Hadji Kamlon in southern Philippines until 1955. The
Mustangs were also the first aircraft of the Philippine air demonstration team,
which was formed in 1953 and given the name the Blue Diamonds the following
year. The Mustangs were replaced by 56 F-86 Sabres in the late 1950s, but some
were still in service for COIN roles up to the early 1980s.
Poland
During World War II, five Polish Air Force in
Great Britain squadrons used Mustangs. The first Polish unit equipped (7 June
1942) with Mustang Mk Is was "B" Flight of 309 "Ziemi
Czerwieńskiej" Squadron
(an Army Co-Operation Command unit), followed by "A" Flight in March
1943. Subsequently, 309 Squadron was redesignated a fighter/reconnaissance unit
and became part of Fighter Command. On 13 March 1944, 316
"Warszawski" Squadron received their first Mustang Mk IIIs; rearming
of the unit was completed by the end of April. By 26 March 1944, 306
"Toruński" Sqn and 315 "Dębliński" Sqn received Mustangs Mk
IIIs (the whole operation took 12 days). On 20 October 1944, Mustang Mk Is in
309 Squadron were replaced by Mk IIIs. On 11 December 1944, the unit was again
renamed, becoming 309 Dywizjon Myśliwski "Ziemi Czerwieńskiej" or 309
"Land of Czerwien" Polish Fighter Squadron. In 1945, 303
"Kościuszko" Sqn received 20 Mustangs Mk IV/Mk IVA replacements.
Postwar, between 6 December 1946 and 6 January 1947, all five Polish squadrons
equipped with Mustangs were disbanded. Poland returned about 80 Mustang Mk IIIs
and 20 Mustangs Mk IV/IVAs to the RAF, which transferred them to the US
government.
Somalia
The Somalian Air Force operated eight P-51Ds
in post-World War II service.
South Africa
No.5 Squadron South African Air Force
operated Mustang Mk IIIs (P-51B/C) and Mk IVs (P-51D/K) in Italy during World
War II, beginning in September 1944, when the squadron converted to the Mustang
Mk III from Kittyhawks. The Mk IV and Mk IVA came into SA service in March
1945. These aircraft were generally camouflaged in the British style, having
been drawn from RAF stocks; all carried RAF serial numbers and were struck off
charge and scrapped in October 1945. In 1950, 2 Squadron SAAF was supplied with
F-51D Mustangs by the United States for Korean War service. The type performed
well in South African hands before being replaced by the F-86 Sabre in 1952 and
1953.
South Korea
Within a month of the outbreak of the Korean
War, 10 F-51D Mustangs were provided to the badly depleted Republic of Korea
Air Force as a part of the Bout One Project. They were flown by both South
Korean airmen, several of whom were veterans of the Imperial Japanese Army and
Navy air services during World War II, as well as by US advisers led by Major
Dean Hess. Later, more were provided both from US and from South African
stocks, as the latter were converting to F-86 Sabres. They formed the backbone
of the South Korean Air Force until they were replaced by Sabres.
It also served with the ROKAF Black Eagles
aerobatic team, until retired in 1954.
Sweden
Sweden's Flygvapnet first recuperated four of
the P-51s (two P-51Bs and two early P-51Ds) that had been diverted to Sweden
during missions over Europe. In February 1945, Sweden purchased 50 P-51Ds
designated J 26, which were delivered by American pilots in April and assigned
to the Uppland Wing (F 16) at Uppsala as interceptors. In early 1946, the
Jämtland Wing (F 4) at Östersund was equipped with a second batch of 90 P-51Ds.
A final batch of 21 Mustangs was purchased in 1948. In all, 161 J 26s served in
the Swedish Air Force during the late 1940s. About 12 were modified for photo
reconnaissance and redesignated S 26. Some of these aircraft participated in
the secret Swedish mapping of new Soviet military installations at the Baltic
coast in 1946–47 (Operation Falun), an endeavor that entailed many intentional
violations of Soviet airspace. However, the Mustang could out-dive any Soviet
fighter of that era, so no S 26s were lost in these missions. The J 26s were replaced
by De Havilland Vampires around 1950. The S 26s were replaced by S 29Cs in the
early 1950s.
Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force operated a few USAAF
P-51s that had been impounded by Swiss authorities during World War II after
the pilots were forced to land in neutral Switzerland. After the war,
Switzerland also bought 130 P-51s for $4,000 each. They served until 1958.
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union received at least 10
early-model ex-RAF Mustang Mk Is and tested them, but found them to
"under-perform" compared to contemporary USSR fighters, relegating
them to training units. Later Lend-Lease deliveries of the P-51B/C and D
series, along with other Mustangs abandoned in Russia after the famous
"shuttle missions", were repaired and used by the Soviet Air Force,
but not in front-line service.
Uruguay
The Uruguayan Air Force used 25 P-51D
Mustangs from 1950 to 1960; some were subsequently sold to Bolivia.
P-51s and Civil Aviation
Many P-51s were sold as surplus after the
war, often for as little as $1,500. Some were sold to former wartime fliers or
other aficionados for personal use, while others were modified for air racing.
One of the most significant Mustangs involved
in air racing was serial number 44-10947, a surplus P-51C-10-NT purchased by
film stunt pilot Paul Mantz. He modified the wings, sealing them to create a
giant fuel tank in each one; these "wet wings" reduced the need for
fuel stops or drag-inducing drop tanks. Named Blaze of Noon after the film
Blaze of Noon, the aircraft won the 1946 and 1947 Bendix Air Races, took second
in the 1948 Bendix, and placed third in the 1949 Bendix. Mantz also set a US
coast-to-coast record in 1947. He sold the Mustang to Charles F. Blair Jr
(future husband of Maureen O'Hara), who renamed it Excalibur III and used it to
set a New York-to-London (about 3,460 miles or 5,570 kilometers) record in
1951: 7 hr 48 min from takeoff at Idlewild to overhead London Airport. Later
that year, Blair flew from Norway to Fairbanks, Alaska, via the North Pole
(about 3,130 miles or 5,040 kilometers), proving that navigation via sun sights
was possible over the magnetic North Pole region. For this feat, he was awarded
the Harmon Trophy and the Air Force was forced to change its thoughts on a
possible Soviet air strike from the north. This Mustang now sits in the
National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
In 1958, the RCAF retired its 78 remaining
Mustangs. RCAF pilot Lynn Garrison ferried them from their various storage
locations to Canastota, New York, where the American buyers were based.
Garrison flew each of the surviving aircraft at least once. These aircraft make
up a large percentage of the aircraft presently flying worldwide.
The most prominent firm to convert Mustangs
to civilian use was Trans-Florida Aviation, later renamed Cavalier Aircraft
Corporation, which produced the Cavalier Mustang. Modifications included a
taller tailfin and wingtip tanks. Conversions included a Cavalier Mustang
specialty: a "tight" second seat added in the space formerly occupied
by the military radio and fuselage fuel tank.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the
United States Department of Defense wished to supply aircraft to South American
countries and later Indonesia for close air support and counterinsurgency, it
paid Cavalier to return some of their civilian conversions back to updated
military specifications.
In the 21st century, a P-51 can command a
price of more than $1 million, even for only partially restored aircraft. There
were 204 privately owned P-51s in the US on the FAA registry in 2011, most of
which are still flying, often associated with organizations such as the
Commemorative Air Force (formerly the Confederate Air Force).
In May 2013, Doug Matthews set an altitude
record of 12,975 m (42,568 ft) in a P-51 named The Rebel for piston-powered
aircraft weighing 3,000 to 6,000 kg (6,600 to 13,200 lb). Flying from a grass
runway at Florida's Indiantown airport and over Lake Okeechobee, Matthews set
world records for time to reach altitudes of 9,000 m (30,000 ft), 18 minutes
and 12,000 m (39,000 ft), 31 minutes. He set a level-flight altitude record of
12,200 m (40,100 ft) in level flight and an absolute altitude record of 13,000
m (42,500 ft), breaking the previous record of 11,248 m (36,902 ft) set in
1954.
Incidents
On 9 June 1973, William Penn Patrick (43) a
certified pilot and his passenger, Christian Hagert, died when Patrick's P-51
Mustang crashed in Lakeport, California.
On 1 July 1990 at the National Capital Air
Show (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada), Harry E. Tope was killed when his P-51 Mustang
crashed.
On 16 September 2011 The Galloping Ghost, a
modified P-51 piloted by Jimmy Leeward of Ocala, Florida, crashed during an air
race in Reno, Nevada. Leeward and at least nine people on the ground were
killed when the racer suddenly crashed near the edge of the grandstand.
Variants
Over 20 variants of the P-51 Mustang were
produced from 1940 to after the war.
Production
Except for the small numbers assembled or
produced in Australia, all Mustangs were built by North American initially at Inglewood,
California, but then additionally in Dallas, Texas.
North American-built Airframes
|
Variant
|
Number built
|
Notes
|
|
NA-73X
|
1
|
Prototype
|
|
XP-51
|
2
|
Prototypes
|
|
Mustang I
|
620
|
Built for RAF at Inglewood, California
|
|
A-36 Apache
|
500
|
Dive-bomber variant of P-51; also known as
"Invader" or "Mustang"
|
|
P-51
|
150
|
Built at Inglewood, California. 93 were Lend-Leased
to the UK, operated by RAF as the "Mustang Ia". 57 were retained by
the USAAF and fitted with Allison V-1710-39 engines.
|
|
P-51A-NA
|
310
|
Built at Inglewood, California. 50 Lend-Leased to
the RAF as the "Mustang II".
|
|
XP-51B
|
2
|
Prototypes of P-51B
|
|
P-51B-NA
|
1,987
|
Built at Inglewood, California. First production
version to be equipped with the Merlin engine. 308 supplied under Lend-Lease
and operated by the RAF as "Mustang III".
|
|
P-51C-NT
|
1,750
|
First P-51 variant to be built at North American's
Dallas plant. Identical to P-51B. Mustangs built by North American in Dallas
were suffixed "-NT". 636 were supplied under Lend-Lease to the RAF
as the "Mustang III".
|
|
XP-51D
|
3
|
Prototypes of P-51D
|
|
P-51D-NA/-NT
|
8,200
|
6,600 built at Inglewood and 1,600 built at Dallas.
100 P-51D-1-NA were sent unassembled to Australia. 282 under Lend-Lease
served in the RAF as the "Mustang IV".
|
|
XP-51F
|
3
|
Lightweight version
|
|
XP-51G
|
2
|
Lightweight version; five-bladed propeller
|
|
P-51H-NA
|
555
|
Built at Inglewood, California
|
|
XP-51J
|
2
|
Allison-engined lightweight development.
|
|
P-51K-NT
|
1,500
|
Built at Dallas, Texas. Identical to the P-51D
except fitted with a four-bladed Aeroproducts propeller. 600 Lend-Leased to
the RAF as the "Mustang IVa".
|
|
P-51M-NT
|
1
|
Same as P-51D-25-NT and P-51D-30-NT, but with the
non-water injected V-1650-9A engine for low-altitude operations and sharing
the cuffless Hamilton Standard propeller. It was intended to enter full
production at Dallas, but the contract was later cancelled.
|
|
Total number built
|
15,588
|
Includes 100 sent unassembled to Australia
|
Australian Production by Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation
|
Variant
|
Number built
|
Notes
|
|
Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation
CA-17 Mustang Mk 20
|
80
|
100 unassembled P-51D-1-NA were delivered as kits to
Australia, but only 80 were built.
|
|
CAC CA-18 Mustang Mk 21,
Mk 22 and Mk 23
|
120
|
License production in Australia of 120 (170 were
originally ordered) P-51D. The Mk 21 and Mk 22 used the American-built
Packard V-1650-3 or V-1650-7 engine and the Mk 23 (which followed the Mk 21)
was powered by a Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 or Merlin 70 engine.
|
|
Total number built
|
200
|
|
Conversions of Already-built Mustangs
|
Variant
|
Number converted
|
Notes
|
|
TP-51C
|
At least 5
|
Field modification to create dual-control variant;
at least five known built during World War II for training and VIP transport.
|
|
ETF-51D
|
1
|
One P-51D modified for use on an aircraft carrier.
|
|
Rolls-Royce Mustang Mk X
|
5
|
Five prototype conversions only – two Mustang Mk I
airframes were initially trial fitted with Rolls-Royce Merlin 65 engines in
mid-late 1942, to test the performance of the aircraft with a powerplant
better adapted to medium/high altitudes. The successful conversion of the
Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-51B/C equivalent rendered this experiment as
superfluous. Although the conversions were highly successful, the planned
production of 500 examples was cancelled.
|
Specifications (P-51D Mustang)
Crew: 1
Length: 32 ft 3 in
(9.83 m)
Wingspan: 37 ft 0 in
(11.28 m)
Height: 13 ft 4.5 in
(4.077 m) tail wheel on ground, vertical propeller blade
Wing area: 235 sq ft
(21.8 m2)
Aspect ratio: 5.83
Airfoil: NAA/NACA
45–100
Empty weight: 7,635 lb
(3,463 kg)
Gross weight: 9,200 lb
(4,173 kg)
Maximum takeoff weight:
12,100 lb (5,490 kg)
Fuel capacity: 269 US
gal (224 imp gal; 1,020 L)
Zero-lift drag
coefficient: 0.0163
Drag area: 3.80 sqft
(0.35 m²)
Powerplant: 1 × Packard
(Rolls-Royce) V-1650-7 Merlin 12-cylinder liquid cooled engine, 1,490 hp (1,110
kW) at 3,000 rpm; 1,720 hp (1,280 kW) at WEP
Propellers: 4-bladed
Hamilton Standard constant-speed, variable-pitch, 11 ft 2 in (3.40 m) diameter
Maximum speed: 440 mph
(710 km/h, 383 kn)
Cruise speed: 362 mph
(583 km/h, 315 kn)
Stall speed: 100 mph
(160 km/h, 87 kn)
Range: 1,650 mi (2,660
km, 1,434 nmi) with external tanks
Service ceiling: 41,900
ft (12,800 m)
Rate of climb: 3,200
ft/min (16 m/s)
Lift-to-drag: 14.6
Wing loading: 39 lb/sq
ft (190 kg/m2)
Power/mass: 0.162 / 0.187
hp/lb (0.266 / 0.307 kW/kg) (without / with WEP)
Recommended Mach limit:
0.8
Guns: 6 × .50 caliber
(12.7mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns with 1,840 total rounds (380 rounds for
each on the inboard pair and 270 rounds for each of the outer two pair)
Rockets: 6 or 10 × 5.0
in (127 mm) T64 HVAR rockets (P-51D-25, P-51K-10 on)
Bombs: 1 × 100 lb (45
kg) or 250 lb (110 kg) bomb or 500 lb (230 kg) bomb on hard-point under each
wing
Notable Appearances in Media
P-51 Mustangs featured in the 1948 Warner
Bros. film Fighter Squadron which was directed by Raoul Walsh and starred
Edmond O'Brien & Robert Stack. In this film, P-51Ds belonging to the
California Air National Guard played the role of German Bf-109 fighters to
which the P-51 bore some resemblance from certain angles. For the production,
P-51s were coated with acrylic Luftwaffe paint schemes. The aerial sequences
were filmed near Van Nuys in Los Angeles, California.
A P-51 Mustang piloted by Jimmy Leeward
features as an antagonist in the 1980 aerobatics movie Cloud Dancer.
The Steven Spielberg film Empire of the Sun
(1987), based on the J. G. Ballard novel of the same name, featured models and
restored Mustangs in an attack on a Japanese airstrip next to the internment
camp where the story's protagonist is imprisoned. This was the most complex and
elaborately staged sequence of the film, requiring over 10 days of filming and
60 hours of aerial footage of Mustangs. Film historians and reviewers regard
the scene as a significant cinematic achievement: "Spielberg's most
emotionally reverberant moment, and one of the rare movie scenes that can truly
be called epiphanies."
In the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan, a
flight of P-51s save embattled American troops from German ground forces.
Red Tail Reborn (2007) is the story behind
the restoration of a flying memorial aircraft.
Red-Tailed P-51s play a central role in the
2012 film Red Tails when the 332nd Fighter Group is assigned to bomber escort
duties, finally replacing their aging P-40s.
A P-51 Mustang, privately owned by Tom
Cruise, is repaired and flown by his character Pete Mitchell, in the final
scene of Top Gun: Maverick.
Scale Replicas
As indicative of the iconic nature of the
P-51, manufacturers within the hobby industry have created scale plastic model
kits of the P-51 Mustang, with varying degrees of detail and skill levels. The
aircraft have also been the subject of numerous scale flying replicas. Aside
from the popular model aircraft, several kitplane manufacturers offer 1⁄2, 2⁄3,
and 3⁄4-scale replicas capable of comfortably seating one (or even two) and
offering high performance combined with more forgiving flight characteristics.
Such aircraft include the Titan T-51 Mustang, W.A.R. P-51 Mustang, Linn Mini
Mustang, Jurca Gnatsum, Thunder Mustang, Stewart S-51D Mustang, Loehle 5151
Mustang and ScaleWings SW51 Mustang.
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 |
| North American NA-73X, with a short carburetor air-intake scoop and the frameless, rounded windshield: On the production Mustang Mk Is, the frameless windshield was replaced with a three-piece unit that incorporated a bullet-resistant windshield. |
 |
| P-51D on the Inglewood assembly line. |
 |
| North American XP-51 s/n 41-039, second aircraft built. (USAF) |
 |
| A Royal Air Force North American Mustang Mark III (FX908) on the ground at Hucknall, Nottinghamshire, following the installation of its 1,680-hp Packard Merlin engine by Rolls-Royce Ltd. This aircraft served with Nos. 309 and 316 Polish Fighter Squadrons, 1 November 1943. (Imperial War Museum ATP 11573) |
 |
| “The Bottisham Four”: The flight of four P-51 Mustangs is shown shortly before the planes peel off to lose altitude for landing at their 361st Fighter Group, 8th Fighter Command Station in England, 1 January 1944. (Signal Corps Archive) |
 |
| Pilots of the all-Black American 332nd Fighter Group (the Tuskegee Airmen) at Ramitelli, Italy: From left, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgran, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelron, Jr., Capt. Andrew D. Turner, and Lt. Clarence D. Lester, circa August 1944. (USAAF) |
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| A USAAF armorer of the 100th Fighter Squadron, 332nd Fighter Group, 15th U.S. Air Force checks ammunition belts of the 12.7 mm machine guns in the wings of a North American P-51B Mustang in Italy, ca. September 1944. The 332nd Fighter Group was composed of Afro-American pilots and ground support personnel trained at Tuskegee, Alabama, and the members of the group became collectively known as the "Tuskegee Airmen". (US National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the National Archives Identifier (NAID) 535764) |
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| P-51D s/n 44-14888 of the 8th AF/357th FG/363rd FS, named Glamorous Glen III, is the aircraft in which Chuck Yeager achieved most of his 12.5 kills, including two Me 262s – shown here with twin single-use 108-gallon (409-l) drop tanks fitted. This aircraft was renamed "Melody's Answer" and crashed on 2 March 1945, from unknown causes at Haseloff, west of Treuenbrietzen, Germany. |
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| Top-scoring Mustang ace of World War II, Major George Earl Preddy Jr., with 26.83 aerial victories and five aircraft destroyed on the ground (first three victories were achieved on P-47). (Imperial War Museum FRE 6368) |
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| North American P-51D-10-NA Mustang s/n 44-14164 "Detroit Miss" of the 375th Fighter Squadron of the 361st Fighter Group USAAF. Urban L. "Ben" Drew flew this aircraft in the autumn 1944 a shot down four German aircraft. Totally he claimed six victories. (Martin Čížek) |
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| A P-51D Mustang fighter named "MY GIRL" takes off from Iwo Jima, 1945. (USAF photo) |
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| Medal of Honor recipient Lt. Col. James H. Howard, 354th Fighter Group, in the cockpit of his P-51 Mustang, 25 April 1944. (Imperial War Museum FRE 413) |
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| North American P-51D Mustang. |
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| 31st Fighter Group at San Severo Airfield, Italy, 1944. (USAF) |
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| Captain George Hrico and Lieutenant Boyd O Jackson of the 339th Fighter Group with a P-51 Mustang. (Imperial War Museum FRE 5991) |
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| P-51 Mustangs of the 486th Fighter Squadron, 352nd Fighter Group at RAF Debden to fly with the 4th fighter Group the following day (21 June 1944) on the first 8th Air Force Operation Frantic mission from England to Russia with and return via Italy, 20 June 1944. (Imperial War Museum) |
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| P-51 airplane model in the NACA Ames Research Center Transonic 16ft wind tunnel, 9 May 1944. (United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) under Photo ID: ARC-1944-AAL-5862) |
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| P-51 airplane model in the NACA Ames Research Center Transonic 16ft wind tunnel. (Ames Research Center of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) under Photo ID: ARC-1944-AAL-5863) |
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| North American P-51 Mustang of the 82nd Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron over Japan. (San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive) |
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| Wreckage of American aircraft including P-51 in foreground, underneath the wing of a Douglas A-20, circa 1948/49. (Wereldmuseum Amsterdam) |
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| An American P-51 Mustang of the 336th Fighter Squadron, 4th Fighter Group, which had crash-landed near Schaan, Liechtenstein, 22 February 1945. (Liechtensteinisches Landesarchiv) |
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| Colonel George Peck of the 107th Observation Squadron and 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Group, who was CO of both, in a P-51C. (San Diego Air and Space Museum Archives) |
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| John Godfrey and Don Gentile, two pilots of the 336th Fighter Squadron, the 4th Fighter Group, at Debden, circa 1944. (USAAF/Imperial War Museum FRE 5304) |
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| Major Charles J. Rosenblatt with his crew, circa 1944. His crew were Sergeant Perdue and Sergeant Culver. Rosenblatt was born in Tampa and was a long-time resident of Jacksonville. He served in the U.S. Air Force for 22 years and was a fighter pilot during both World War II and the Korean Conflict. He received two distinguished flying crosses, the Air Medal, and three Oak Leaf Clusters in World War II alone. He was credited with destroying four Nazi planes and damaging three others. (State Library and Archives of Florida) |
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| A German Messerschmitt Me 262 and a U.S. Army Air Forces North American P-51 Mustang in a dogfight over Germany, circa late 1944. (US National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the National Archives Identifier (NAID) 204899960; U.S. Army Air Forces photo 342-FH-3A20403-55042AC) |
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| North American P-51D Mustangs, following shipment to England, are towed on special trailers to a re-assembly site where they will be test flown and assigned to various 8th and 9th Air Force fighter units. (Clyde Engineering Photographic Collection, Powerhouse Museum) In the original posting of this image, the above details were added in the comments section. I believe this may actually be in Australia, as Clyde Engineering is an Australian company that during the war repaired and re-assembled military aircraft. |
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| P-51D (527) “HEL-ETER” of the 506th Fighter Group escorting a B-29 Superfortress on the way to a bombing mission over Japan in 1945. Note the wing tanks on the fighter. |
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| A P-51B/C Mustang (72) nicknamed "Lady Jean" of the 319th Fighter Squadron 325th Fighter Group, 15th Air Force with a damaged tail, circa 1944/45. (USAAF) |
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| P-51B Mustang at Poltava in 1944 during Operation Frantic bombing missions. Operation Frantic was a series of seven shuttle bombing operations during World War II conducted by American aircraft based in Great Britain and southern Italy, which landed at three Soviet airfields in the Ukrainian SSR. From there, the planes flew bombing missions en route back to their bases in Italy and Great Britain. (San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives) |
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| P-51s of the 383rd Fighter Squadron at RAF Honington, England, 1944. (USAAF; photo has been heavily cleaned up probably because it was poorly copied from a published magazine or book) |
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| Four U.S. Army Air Forces North American P-51 Mustang fighters from the 332nd Fighter Group flying in formation over Ramitelli airfield, Campobasso, Italy, in March 1945. (United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsca.13268) |
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| P-51 Mustangs preparing for missions against Japan from Motoyama Airfield No. 2, largest of the three airstrips on Iwo Jima in 1945. (USAF photo) |
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| These P-51 Mustang fighters are being accompanied by a B-29 Superfortress and returning from a mission to Japan in 1945. (USAF photo) |
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| Boeing B-29 bomber burns on an Iwo Jima airfield, after its brakes locked on landing and it swerved into an aircraft parking area, April 24, 1945. The B-29 hit and destroyed four P-51 Mustang fighters, One is burning by the bomber's nose, another off its right wing. (National Archives SC 230293) |
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| P-51 Mustang of the 26th Fighter Squadron, 51st Fighter Group with pilot Col David “Tex” Hill on the wing in 1944. (USAF photo) |
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| German airfield with Messerschmitt Me 262s (right; Leipheim forest factory) is strafed by US fighters; three of five have been set on fire. A P-51 which has just completed its strafing run can be seen at upper left, 18 November 1944. (USAAF photo) |
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| Townsville, Qld., 27 July 1945. Close-up showing cockpit area of North American P-51K Mustang fighter aircraft of No. 84 Squadron RAAF, based at Ross River airfield. Pilot is Flight Lieutenant S. E. Armstrong. (Australian War Memorial under the ID Number NEA0721) |
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| Townsville, Qld. 27 July 1945. Pilot Flying Officer D. V. Terry climbing into the cockpit of his North American P-51K Mustang fighter aircraft A68-557 coded LB-Z, of No. 84 Squadron RAAF, based at Ross River airfield, viewed from the tail. (Australian War Memorial under the ID Number NEA0714) |
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| The cockpit interior of North American P-51D Mustang, circa 1944/45. (USAAF photo) |
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| Wing Commander Stanisław Skalski, leader of No. 133 (Polish) Wing, in the cockpit of his North American Mustang with No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron markings at Ford, Sussex. Skalski was the most successful Polish fighter pilot of the war, having shot down 22 and ½ enemy aircraft by 1945. (Imperial War Museum CH 13567) |
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| Tuskegee airman Edward C. Gleed, Lawrence, KS, Class 42-K, with two unidentified crewmen adjusting an external seventy-five gallon drop takn on the wing of a P-5/D, "Creamer's Dream." Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945. (United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsca.13270) |
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| Colonel James B. Tipton commanding the 363rd Fighter Group standing by his P-51D Mustang “Diablo” at Azeville Airfield A-7, France, 1944. (USAAF photo) |
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| North American P-51A (F-5) of the 67th Reconnaissance Group, Membury Airfield, England during World War II. (USAAF photo) |
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| Pilots of No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron RAF gathered by their Commanding Officer's new Mustang Mark III (FB387, PG-G) at RAF Brenzett, 2 August 1944. From left to right: Flying Officer Bożydar Nowosielski; Squadron Leader Eugeniusz Horbaczewski (CO); Flight Sergeant Stanisław Będkowski; Flight Lieutenant Gwidon Świstun; unknown member of the ground crew; Flight Lieutenant Michał Cwynar; unknown mechanic. Seated on the ground is Warrant Officer Tadeusz Jankowski. (Imperial War Museum FRE 14873) |
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| Squadron Leader Eugeniusz 'Dziubek' Horbaczewski's kills being painted on his P-51 Mustang (FB387) at Brenzett, 3 August 1944. The Polish ace was the CO of No. 315 Squadron and a record of his thirteen and a half aerial victories and four V-1s destroyed was painstakingly transferred to this newly delivered aircraft. He was shot down and killed on 18 August 1944. (Imperial War Museum HU 87719) |
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| Squadron Leader Eugeniusz Horbaczewski, the CO of the No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron, standing by his new North American Mustang Mark III, FB387 'PK-G, at Brenzett, Kent. He was shot down and killed on 18 August 1944, after destroying three Focke-Wulf Fw 190s to bring his score to 16 and a half victories. (Imperial War Museum MH 1936) |
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| Pilot Marian Jankiewicz getting g strapped into hs Mustang Mk. III of No. 315 Polish Fighter Squadron, 20 March 1945. (Cezary Bem) |
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| Wing Commander H A C Bird-Wilson, when leader of the Bentwaters Wing, standing by the tail of his North American Mustang Mark III, KH500 'HB-W', at Bentwaters, Suffolk, circa 1944/45. The rudder bears the mailed gauntlet badge of No. 17 Squadron RAF, with whom Bird-Wilson commenced his operational service, fighting with them in France and during the Battle of Britain until he was shot down and seriously wounded on 24 September 1940. In April 1941 he joined No. 234 Squadron as a flight commander, and after a period as an instructor, was posted to command No. 152 Squadron RAF in March 1942. He took over No. 66 Squadron RAF in November 1942, and became Wing Leader of Nos. 121 and 122 Airfields in succession in 1943. In January 1944 he attended a course at the Command and General Staff School, Leavenworth, USA. On returning to the United Kingdom in July 1944, he led the Perranporth Wing, and became Wing Leader at Bentwaters in December 1944. He was appointed to the Air Staff of No. 11 Group the month after this photograph was taken, having shot down 11 enemy aircraft.. (Imperial War Museum CH 14694) |
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| Flight Lieutenant J C S Turner of No 4 Squadron RAF seated at the controls of his North American Mustang Mark I at Bottisham, Cambridgeshire. (Imperial War Museum CH 9543) |
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| English: Major Donald J. Strait standing next to his P-51D “Jersey Jerk”, circa 1945. (USAF photo) |
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| Maintenance on a U.S. Army Air Forces North American P-51D Mustang of the 55th Fighter Group at RAF Wormingford, Essex (UK). As it is stated in the description that the 55th FG escorted bombers to Karlsruhe, Germany, afterwards and the photo was published on 19 January 1945, it has to be taken on 4 December 1944, when Karlsruhe was bombed. (National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the National Archives Identifier (NAID) 204879844) |
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| On an airfield in Buckinghamshire, a mechanic makes adjustments to the Allison engine of a North American Mustang Mark I belonging to the 'Eastland' air force during Exercise SPARTAN. (Imperial War Museum H 27819) |
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| Wooden wheels are attached to a P-51 ("Mustang") fighter plane so it may be moved around the ramp at the Inglewood, Calif., plant of North American Aviation, Inc., circa October 1942. (US National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the National Archives Identifier (NAID) 195491) |
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| P-51D (557) s/n 44-63909 of the 458th Fighter Squadron, 506th Fighter Group on Iwo Jima in 1945. (USAF photo) |
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| Mustang Mk. I. (USAF photo) |
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| A North American P-51D-5-NA Mustang (s/n 44-14017) takes off from the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS Shangri-La (CV-38) during a test flight on 15 November 1944. This aircraft was given to the U.S. Navy and fitted with arrester hook for carrier trials. It was assigned to the NACA Langley Research Center, Langley Field, Virginia from 18 January 1945 to 5 June 1952. (US Navy photo) |
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| 1st Lt. Charles F. Gumm of the 355th Fighter Squadron, 354th Fighter Group, stands in front of a P-51 Mustang. (USAF photo) |
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| A U.S. Army Air Forces North American P-51D Mustang, circa 1944-45. (USAAF photo) |
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| P-51H Mustang. (USAF photo) |
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| Staff Sgt. Alfred D. Norris, crew chief of an African American fighter group of the 15th U.S. Air Force, closes the canopy of a P-51 Mustang for his pilot, Capt. William T. Mattison, operations officer of the squadron based in Italy. (USAAF photo) |
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| North American Mustang IA. |
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| North American Mustang Mk. III. (Marek Cel) |
