Battle of Tel el Eisa: First Battle of El Alamein July 1942

Australian machine gunners Privates Rymer and Cullen fired their Vickers continuously for two days against German positions. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 1942.

The offensive action that established the position around the rail siding at Tel el Eisa, north-west of Alamein, Egypt. Leaving from their start line Australian troops broke through the German and Italian line and followed the coast for several kilometers. The troops then swung south, inland towards Tel el Eisa, which was captured, and two other positions, East Point 24 and Trig 33. The fighting lasted for several days, during which time the Australians withstood a series of German armored counterattacks.

The 9th Division’s Foundation for Success at El Alamein

by Major Sean VW Childs

The Allied victory at the Battle of El Alamein in Egypt is one of the most famous of the Second World War. That is because it was the start of the end of the Axis forces in North Africa.

Less famous, is the Australian 9th Division’s involvement in an attack around Tel el Eisa west of Alamein.  The attack laid a foundation for the later success of the British Eighth Army at Alamein. That success is traced to the British Army’s reinvigoration of combined arms warfare and the improvement of its related tactical doctrine. Prior to the attack the 9th’s preparations incorporated innovative ‘battle drill’ training. During the attack, the 26th Brigade used Radio

Telephony that enhanced the synchronization and coordination of their supporting arms.

Training

From September 1941, the 9th were in Palestine to refit and train following their successful actions in the Defense of Tobruk. By May 1942, they had deployed to Syria as part of an Allied garrison, where they continued their training

The training focused on cohesion in combined arms warfare and the role of supporting arms, particularly in the attack. Central to the training was the introduction of the British Home Forces’ new ‘battle drill’ concept that suggested simple drills to eliminate unnecessary orders and economize time. This approach was designed to counter the changed character of the war in North Africa that had become attrition warfare.

The Action

By July 1942, the 9th had moved to Egypt to join the Eighth Army making its stand at Alamein. The order for the Division’s leading brigades was to deny the enemy the approaches to Alexandria from the west and south-west. In the defensive ‘Alamein Box’, the 24th Brigade occupied the right with its flank to the coast and the 26th Brigade was on the left. Here, to defend Alexandria, the plan was to attack Rommel’s forces.

On July 10, the 26th Brigade attacked the Axis lines, its objectives being the capture of the high ground west of Alamein and then the Tel el Eisa ridge. The high ground (see map Point 26, Point 23, and Trig 33) afforded observation of the ground in front of the Alamein Box and much of the Eighth Army's territory.

The 26th Brigade achieved its objectives through a combined arms assault of the Tel el Eisa area. Each of its battalions, supported by a squadron of tanks and artillery, commanded a troop of anti-tank guns, a platoon of machine gunners and some engineers. For six days the Allied and Axis forces continually attacked and counter-attacked each other. By July 16, the Brigade had tactically withdrawn from Point 24 (Tel el Eisa ridge) because the enemy commanded the area, and it was deemed to be of no tactical value. This was a defensive victory for the 9th.

Lessons Learnt

The 9th’s success was due to its training, morale, cohesion and its artillery support. The exercises in Syria, which included working with armor and air support, contributed to the success of the attack. Their consideration of ‘battle drill’ that was not widely accepted across the Eighth Army is evidence of an organization that was adaptive and innovative. Morale throughout the attack was high because of exemplary leadership.

Because of the training and morale, the 26th Brigade’s combined arms cohesion was effective. It was the first time that the divisional artillery and machine-guns had fought beside their own infantry, and it was the first time that direct air support was available to the division. Their machine-gun, mortar fire, and supporting artillery fire was timely, accurate and intense. Here Radio Telephony was a watershed. The Brigade’s 2/24th Battalion recorded that, “[sic] The Bn used R/T [Radio Telephony] for the first time and it proved very successful. Comn with Pts and 33 would have been virtually impossible without R/T and it was extensively used for directing arty on to required targets”.

Broadly, the 9th Division’s defensive victory solidified the knowledge that coordinated, combined arms warfare was the requirement for the Eighth Army’s transition to the offensive, a break-out from Alamein, and the eventual victory in North Africa. The Tel el Eisa actions reinforced the requirement for adequate firepower, agile forward movement of battalion support weapons, and efficient divisional combined arms coordination.

The 9th at Tel el Eisa and after was in a forceful mood, and was reaching a pinnacle of organizational effectiveness and structural maturity. This was a foundation of the victory at El Alamein that Field Marshal Montgomery acknowledged was given to him by the 9th.

On July 10, 1942, the 26th Brigade attacked the German and Italian lines, its objectives the capture of the high ground west of Alamein (Points 26 and 23, and Trig 33) and then the Tel el Eisa ridge (Points 24 East and Point 24 West). The high ground afforded observation of the ground in front of the Alamein Box and much of the Eighth Army's territory.

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The 9th Division's Darkest Hour

During the First Battle of El Alamein the 9th Australian Division was tasked with the capture of Ruin Ridge. Despite heavy fighting during the opening stages they achieved some of their objectives, but their successes obliged General Rommel to divert large numbers of troops to contain the Australian advance. The fighting then became desperate, leading to heavy casualties and the near decimation of one battalion.

Capture of Tel el Eisa. The capture of Tel el Eisa on 16 July 1942 provided a firm base of operations for the attacks at Ruin Ridge.

Makh Khad Ridge. On 17 July, the 24th Australian Infantry Brigade pushed on from Makh Khad Ridge towards Miteiriya Ridge.

 

Dispositions on 18 July. After falling back from Miteiriya Ridge, the 24th Brigade gun in around the telegraph line. Note the position of Trig Point 22 which remained in Axis hands.

26th Brigade Attack 22-23 July.

The Push Towards Ruin Ridge. The 24th Brigade push forward with the 2/28th Battalion leading. The 2/28th would occupy Ruin Ridge, but the failure of Allied armor to come to their aid resulted in the surrender and capture of the Battalion.

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 Victoria Cross: Private Arthur Stanley Gurney, 2/48 Battalion

WX9858 Private Arthur Stanley Gurney was born at Day Dawn on the Murchison goldfields, near Cue, Western Australia on 15 December 1908. One of five children to George and Jane (nee Roberts) Gurney, Arthur was schooled at Day Dawn State School before entering Stott’s Business College in Perth. A keen cyclist, he was heavily involved in competition cycling in Western Australia. In 1929 he won the C R Wilson Shield, a 50 mile open cycling race with prize money of 14 pounds. After leaving school he worked briefly for a land agent before gaining a position with the City of Perth Electricity and Gas Department.

Gurney enlisted in the Second AIF at Claremont on 6 December 1940. He embarked at Fremantle for the Middle East on 5 July 1941, joining D Company, 2/48 Battalion (2/48Bn) at Tobruk, Libya on 12 September. In October, the battalion moved to Palestine and in early 1942 to Syria. In June, as part of 9 Division under Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead, 2/48Bn was rushed to Egypt to meet Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s advance across Egypt. On 29 June, following a series of losses, the allied Eighth Army, of which 9 Division was a part, fell back to the Alamein Line, barely 100 kilometers from the British Naval Base at Alexandria.

On the morning of 6 July, 2/48Bn was moved forward to Shammama Halt, about 20 kilometers east of the small railway siding of El Alamein. Three days later the battalion formed up and moved to the Alamein Line. With 9 Division, the battalion was to counter-attack the northern flank of Rommel’s forces. 2/48Bn’s objectives were the Hill of Jesus and Tel el Eisa Railway Station. Shortly before the action Gurney wrote home saying: ‘I regret that up to date I have not had a chance of locking horns with [the enemy], but I hope we shan’t be long now.’ At about 3.40 am on 10 July the attack began. D and A Companies’ objective of Point 23, north east of Tel El Eisa Station was taken soon after dawn. D and C Companies then swung down and took the station itself. Counter attacks soon followed and fierce fighting continued for the next two weeks.

At dawn on 22 July, B and D Companies were deployed to take West Point 24, an enemy position south west of the railway cutting. The action had not long commenced when the companies came under concentrated fire and were halted less than 200 meters from the enemy strong posts. Any attempt by the Australians to move forward was met with withering machine gun fire. Casualties quickly mounted to the point that D Company had lost all its officers. 17 Platoon, including Gurney, was now commanded by Private Herb Ashby.

At this point Gurney, closely followed by Private Ivan Hanel, rushed the nearest enemy machine gun post, somehow evading the heavy fire. Nearing the post Gurney threw a grenade and bayoneted a German before both men jumped into the trench, taking the post. Gurney then turned his attention to the next post but Hanel was killed before he could follow. Gurney continued on alone to take the next machine gun pit, accounting for a further three enemy soldiers in the process. Without slacking he moved toward a third before he was momentarily stunned when a grenade knocked him to the ground. Recovering his senses, he launched forward and disappeared into the enemy trench. He was using his bayonet to effect ‘when the inevitable end to such a magnificent display of single handed courage came. A burst from another machine gun killed him.’ His body was later recovered from the enemy trench. For his actions Gurney was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. The recommendation for the award was, unusually, initiated by Ashby, a private. The citation reads:

For gallantry and unselfish bravery in silencing enemy machine-gun posts by bayonet assault at Tel el Eisa on 22nd July, 1942, thus allowing his Company to continue the advance. During an attack on a strong German position in the early morning of 22nd July, 1942, the Company to which Private Gurney belonged, was held up by intense machine-gun fire from posts less than 100 yards ahead, heavy casualties being inflicted on our troops, all the officers being killed or wounded. Grasping the seriousness of the situation and without hesitation, Private Gurney charged the nearest enemy machine-gun post, bayoneted three men and silenced the post. He then continued on to a second post, bayoneted two men and sent out a third as a prisoner. At this stage a stick of grenades was thrown at Private Gurney which knocked him to the ground. He rose again, picked up his rifle and charged the third post using the bayonet with great vigour. He then disappeared from view and later his body was found in an enemy post. By this single-handed act of gallantry in the face of a determined enemy, Private Gurney enabled his Company to press forward to its objective, inflicting heavy losses upon the enemy. The successful outcome of this engagement was almost entirely due to Private Gurney’s heroism at the moment when it was needed.

The loss of Gurney was felt keenly throughout the battalion. In a letter to Gurney’s sister, the battalion commander Lieutenant Colonel H H Hammer wrote that ‘every man of the 48th Bn shares with you your sorrow in the loss you have suffered.’ The 11 September 1942 edition of the battalion’s newsletter, ‘Khamseen Kronicle’, was dedicated to ‘one whose courage on the field of battle wreaths his death in glory and begets honor to his comrades and country.’ Gurney is buried in plot XVI. H. 21. of the El Alamein War Cemetery. His VC and campaign medals came into the National Collection in 1993.

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Distinguished Conduct Medal: Corporal T C Derrick, 2/48 Battalion

Thomas Currie ‘Diver’ Derrick was born in Adelaide on 20 March 1914. Leaving school at 14, he tried various jobs and was a farm laborer when he enlisted in July 1940 as private SX7964 with 2/48 Battalion. He served in Tobruk before being awarded this Distinguished Conduct Medal for his actions at Tel el Eisa in 1942. During the fighting he captured 100 enemy, three machine gun posts and damaged two German tanks by using sticky bombs. The citation for the award reads:

For outstanding leadership and personal courage in action during the initial fighting at Tel el Eisa in Jul 42 and devotion to duty for the period May to Oct 1942.

Sgt. Derrick has frequently shown outstanding leadership in action and during the initial attack on Tel el Eisa in the early morning of 10 Jul 42, by his own personal courage and leadership, attacked and captured three Fiat MG nests. He was personally responsible for the capture of 100 enemy by his cool determination, leading his men with great dash and bravery.

Later that same night, in a counterattack on enemy tanks and infantry at the Tel el Eisa Railway Station, Sgt. Derrick was outstanding in fighting qualities. He attacked two German tanks with sticky bombs, damaging both, and was a great factor in the successful counter-attack which restored the Sta. to our forces.

On all occasions, both in and out of the action, Sgt. Derrick has been exemplary in his conduct and courage. He has proved himself to be a fine leader and a brave soldier, always inspiring his men to follow his example.

During fighting at El Alamein in October Derrick was evacuated wounded but later rejoined his unit. Shifting to New Guinea in 1943, he saw more fighting and in one outstanding action firmly established himself as a national hero.

Late in the afternoon of 24 November, while leading a platoon at Sattelberg, Derrick, despite being ordered to retire, attacked up an almost vertical slope of thick jungle hiding Japanese machine-guns. Scrambling on hands and feet, hurling grenades, and using his rifle, Derrick cleared ten machine-gun posts in one of the most astonishing feats of the war, for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross.

Derrick later attended an officer cadet training unit, graduating in late 1944. Insisting on returning to his famous 2/48th Battalion, he was fatally wounded during fighting on Tarakan Island, Borneo, on 22 May. He died the next day.

View of men of “A” Company, 2/23rd Australian Infantry Battalion, in the railway cutting taken from the Germans after bitter fighting on July 23, 1942. When taken it was held by two officers and 10 men for 10 hours until reinforcements arrived. Note the water tins in left bottom corner. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Distant view of Tel el Eisa (Hill of Jesus) station showing type of country over which the troops of the 9th Australian Division had to advance in the attack on this position. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Distant view of Tel el Eisa station looking toward German front line where there are Spandau posts. Heavy fighting took place around here before the position was finally wrested from the Germans. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Bronzed gunners. Study of heavy ack-ack gun at Tel el Eisa. January 20, 1943.

Graves of two members of the crew of a German Heinkel bomber which crashed on the roadside about a mile from Tel el Eisa station. August 2, 1942.

A Bren gun carrier moves forward during an advance by the 9th Australian Division in the Tel el Eisa area. August 1, 1942.

Private L. Myers with his mortar in position during an advance by the 9th Australian Division in the Tel el Eisa area. August 1, 1942.

Twin Italian machine gun lying burnt out near Tel el Eisa station. This position was captured by "A" Company, 2/23rd Australian Infantry Battalion after four separate attempts on July 23, 1942. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Scene of a decisive tank battle at the blockhouse west of Tel el Eisa. In the foreground are some of our tanks knocked out by an anti-tank gun. We accounted for 18 Jerries. In the background a convoy is seen advancing. The picture was taken a few hours after the battle was over.

The remains of a convoy that was carrying supplies to German troops in the Tel el Eisa sector during the last heavy fighting in the Western Desert. During the fluctuation of the battle these vehicles changed hands twice but were eventually reduced to wrecks when the enemy intelligence mistakenly directed the convoy into the Australian lines.

Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead (left) and his Aide-de-Camp (ADC), Captain Tim Collins, at the end of Collins' appointment as ADC. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 31, 1942.

Salvage of a plane that came down near Tel el Eisa. Western Desert, Egypt. August 22, 1942.

The troop command post of a battery of 9th Australian Divisional artillery. Gunner Simpson on the field telephone. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 29, 1942.

Lieutenant General B.L. Montgomery, CB DSO, Commanding the Eighth British Army, photographed in a happy mood during a visit to the forward positions of the 9th Australian Division. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 21, 1942.

Lieutenant-General B.L. Montgomery, CB, DSO, Commanding Eighth Army (wearing Australian slouch hat) with Lieutenant-General Sir Leslie Morshead, KBE, CMG, DSO, ED, Commanding 9th Australian Division on his right, is seen conferring with officers of the Australian Division during his visit to them in the forward area. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 21, 1942.

Lieutenant-General B.L. Montgomery, CB, DSO (center) Commanding Eighth Army is here seen talking with officers of the 9th Australian Division during his visit to the division in their forward positions. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 21, 1942.

Lieutenant-General B.L. Montgomery, CB, DSO, Commanding Eighth Army (back to camera, left) talking to officers of the 9th Australian Division during his visit to the division in their forward positions. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 21, 1942.

Looking back on the Hill of Jesus–the German view. This country is littered with mines and the general debris of battle. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

An enemy field gun abandoned near the railway station. Bitter fighting had taken place in this area before the enemy retreated. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 1942.

A 25-pounder gun crew of the 9th Australian Division at their stations. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 29, 1942.

A 25-pounder gun of the 9th Australian Divisional artillery under its camouflage netting. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 29, 1942.

Men of the 2/2nd Australian Machine Gun Battalion manning a Vickers machine gun at the Tel el Eisa railway cutting. Private A. Starkey is in the firing position, the other man is Private R. Somerville. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Men of the 2/2nd Australian Machine Gun Battalion manning a Vickers machine gun at the Tel el Eisa railway cutting. Private A. Starkey is in the firing position, the other man is Private R. Somerville. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Some of the 97 German prisoners captured by the British forces in Egypt in a raid on Tel El Eisa, Egypt, on September 1, 1942.

This sign was a well known landmark to troops engaged in the bitter fighting around Tel el Eisa, (Arabic for Hill of Jesus) north east of El Alamein. Originally located near a small railway station captured by 2/48 Battalion on the morning of 10 July 1942, the sign was later removed by Lieutenant Colonel A R Allen, a commissioner of the Australian Comforts Fund. SX681Driver Andrew James Todd, Australian Army Service Corps, 9 Division, of Kangarilla, South Australia, has scratched his name and service number into the sign.

Tel el Eisa Railway Station, Egypt 1942.

'The front', Tel el Eisa, Egypt, 1942.

The graves of two German airmen decorated with the swastika insignia taken from the Stuka in which they were shot down at Tel-el-Eisa. July 23, 1942.

Ruins of Tel el Eisa Mosque, Egypt, 1942.

Railway line repairs, Alamein to Tel el Eisa, Egypt, 1942.

The front line, Tel el Eisa, Egypt, 1942.

Taken during an advance by troops of the 9th Australian Division, this picture shows a signalman operating a portable switchboard while a linesman reels out more cable to a new position. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Corporal J. Hinson, 2/48th Australian Infantry Battalion being congratulated by his commanding officer on his immediate award of the Distinguished Conduct Medal. Another DCM. winner Sergeant J.K. Weston (Tobruk 1941) is waiting to add his congratulations. The award was for "conspicuous bravery and leadership during the attack of July 10, 1942." Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

Scene in the railway cutting near Tel el Eisa. Lieutenant N.E. McMaster, Acting Officer Commanding "A" Company, 2/23rd Australian Infantry Battalion (right) holding a belt of machine gun bullets from the captured Breda model 37 8mm machine gun around which men of the company are grouped. "A" Company wrested this position from the Germans after four attempts. Two officers and 10 men then held the position for 10 hours until the arrival of reinforcements. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. August 1, 1942.

In the FOP (Forward Observation Post). Lance-Bombardier Russell and Warrant Officer Mackenzie, members of the 9th Australian Divisional artillery observing the effects of their battery's fire on enemy positions. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 29, 1942.

Artillerymen of the 9th Australian Division are here seen manning a 6-pounder anti-tank gun in the Tel el Eisa area. This gun played havoc with enemy tanks. Tel el Eisa, Egypt. July 1942.

Bombing of Chongqing (Chungking), China

G3M bombers dropping bombs on Chongqing, China, circa 1940s.

The bombing of Chongqing, from 18 February 1938 to 19 December 1944, was a series of massive terror bombing operations authorized by the Empire of Japan's Imperial General Headquarters and conducted by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service (IJAAF) and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAF). Resistance was put up by the Chinese Air Force and the National Revolutionary Army's anti-aircraft artillery units in defense of the provisional wartime capital of Chongqing and other targets in Sichuan.

According to incomplete statistics, a total of 268 air raids were conducted against Chongqing, involving anywhere from a few dozen to over 150 bombers per raid. These bombings were probably aimed at cowing the Chinese government, or as part of the planned but never executed Sichuan invasion.

Opposing Forces

China

The centralized command of the Republic of China Air Force integrated many former Chinese warlord air force aircraft and crews, and numerous Chinese-American and other foreign aviators volunteering for service with the Chinese Air Force. Nominally referred to as the Nationalist Air Force of China, at the outbreak of the air war in 1937 it was equipped mainly with US-made aircraft and training, as well as aircraft and training from other foreign sources, including Italian and Japanese army air force instructors. China was not an aviation industrial power at the time, and by the end of 1938 had suffered severe losses through attrition at the Battle of Shanghai, the Fall of Nanjing, the Fall of Taiyuan, and the Fall of Wuhan. The Chinese had found new hope in the lifeline of the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1937, and Chinese Air Force pilots had almost completely transitioned into the Soviet-made Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 series of fighter pursuit aircraft by early 1938. Along with a few remaining Curtiss Hawk IIIs which were China's frontline fighter attack weapon of choice at the beginning of War of Resistance-World War II in 1937. A handful of other fighter aircraft models were also available to the Chinese, including several Dewoitine D.510 fighters left by the defunct French Volunteer Group (the 41st PS), which was disbanded in October 1938 due to difficulties in combating the Mitsubishi A5M fighter. While the Chinese victory at the Battle of Kunlun Pass kept the Burma Road open, the ever increasing Japanese blockade of imports into China, particularly after Chongqing was cut off from the sea after losing Nanning in the Battle of South Guangxi, and with war now looming in Europe, the supplies needed by the Chinese were barely trickling in, and the Chinese Air Force had to make do with the increasingly poor flying performance and maintenance problems of these Soviet-made fighters burning low-grade 65–75 octane fuel in the first few years defending Chongqing and Chengdu while massive formations of Japanese aircraft benefiting from great technological advancements and burning 90+ octane fuel were flying ever-faster and higher, almost beyond practical reach of the obsolescent Chinese fighter aircraft; the British Royal Air Force for example were supplied directly by their own aircraft industry while benefiting from tremendous improvements in their fighter aircraft speed, acceleration and high-altitude performance by upgrading from the standard 87 octane fuel to the "secret 100 octane" formula later in the Battle of Britain.

Primary and auxiliary airbases used by the Chinese Air Force in the Chongqing and Chengdu defense sector included Baishiyi Airbase, Fenghuangshan, Guangyangba, Liangshan, Shuangliu, Suining, Taipingsi, Wenjiang, and Xinjin, among others. There were 18 primary anti-aircraft artillery batteries positioned around Chongqing from 1939 to 1942, not including the air force's anti-aircraft gun units assigned specifically for the defense of the airbases.

As the Chinese government and military forces fell back and engaged the Japanese advances in new frontline operations in the beginning of 1938 at Wuhan, Taierzhuang, Guangdong and other main battle lines, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force began harassing the deep-rear with exploratory strikes against the anticipated national fortress of Chongqing, while the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Force was hitting hard at the main battle-front of the temporary wartime-capital Wuhan. The exploratory strikes on Chongqing began on 18 February 1938, and continued sporadically at relatively low intensity until the commencement of "Operation 100" on 3 May 1939, when airbases of newly-captured territories, specifically in Hubei province including Wuhan, allowed the Japanese to establish airbases and logistics to stage a sustained campaign of massively coordinated joint-strike operations with the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service heavy bomber units. The introduction of the Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter in 1940, the most advanced fighter aircraft produced at the time, ensured the Japanese practically complete air supremacy. U.S. support for China had begun in earnest in 1941 following the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, with the oil and steel embargo against Japan, and consequently, the Japanese raid on Pearl Harbor; beginning in 1942, barrels of 100-octane avgas began to increasingly trickle into China through the cross-Himalayan air-route known as "The Hump" – mostly destined for United States Army Air Force (USAAF) operations – and the Chinese Air Force were provided with new American Republic P-43 Lancer pursuit planes, which in theory with its very fast high-altitude performance and good firepower from its four 50 cal (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, was quite the upgrade the Chinese Air Force needed to effectively hit back at the Japanese raiders, but it was proven to be extremely unreliable and may have killed more of its own pilots than the enemies, including veteran pilot and 4th PG CO Major Zheng Shaoyu whose P-43 caught fire during a ferrying flight back to combat operations in China and was killed in the ensuing crash.

Japan

The majority of the Japanese air raids conducted against Chongqing and other targets around Sichuan were made with squadrons of medium-heavy bombers composed of IJNAF Mitsubishi G3M variants, known under Allied codename "Nell" and the IJAAF Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally"; others include the Fiat BR.20 Cicognas ("Ruth"), Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily" and Nakajima B5N "Kate". Prior to the departure of the crack Japanese naval air units in China for the Pacific War in mid-late 1941, the new successor to the G3M bomber, the Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" and the Aichi D3A dive-bomber were operationally tested in the bombing of Chongqing, followed by newer designs such as the Mitsubishi Ki-67 "Peggy", Nakajima Ki-49 "Helen", and Yokosuka P1Y "Frances" (successor to the G4M), which were deployed in the following years as the bombing of Chongqing continued.

Raids

In the first two days of the Operation 100 bombing campaign, 54 and 27 Japanese bombers raided Chongqing on 3 and 4 May 1939 respectively, dropping approximately a 3:2 ratio of Type 98/25 high explosive "land bombs" (98 dropped on day one) and Type 98/7 incendiary bombs (68 dropped on day one). The first raid killed almost 700 residents and injured 350 more. Major Deng Mingde led the 22nd Pursuit Squadron (of the 4th Pursuit Group) Polikarpov fighters against the bombers on 3 May, shooting down seven bombers but losing two pilots including his deputy commander, the veteran Zhang Mingsheng. Zhang tried to save his damaged plane, but it became engulfed by fire, and while bailing-out and parachuting to safety, he was severely burned; he was then attacked by locals who thought he was a Japanese airman as he laid on the ground, barely able to mutter a sound to identify himself, and rescued four hours later, succumbing to his battle wounds the following day in a hospital.

The pre-dawn attack on 4 May resulted in far more casualties, with over three thousand deaths, injuring almost 2,000 more, and leaving about 200,000 homeless. Although the attacking force was smaller and dropped fewer bombs, there was no interception of the bombers by the Chinese Air Force whose airbases in the Chongqing region were not yet set up for nighttime operations.

Two months later, after tens of thousands of deaths, in retaliation for firebombing, the United States embargoed the export of airplane parts to Japan, thus imposing its first economic sanction against that nation.

The Japanese began to embark more nighttime bombing raids against Chongqing in summer of 1939 in an effort to reduce confrontation and casualties from defending Chinese Air Force fighters; however, the Chinese pilots began operating nighttime interceptions over Chongqing with some success in shooting down the nighttime bombers using "lone wolf" fighter tactics previously deployed during the Battle of Nanking two years earlier (and similar to the Wilde Sau tactics the Luftwaffe would deploy a few years later). The interceptions involved the coordination with a series of manually-operated ground based searchlights illuminating and tracking incoming bombers which can then be seen and targeted by the solitary fighter pilot; fighter ace Liu Zhesheng shot down a bomber on the night of 3 August 1939 flying "lone wolf" in an I-15bis during such a nighttime interception mission over Chongqing, among several other kills he claimed while battling for the defense of Chongqing. In the following night, Capt. Cen Zeliu would also claim a nighttime kill of a bomber while at the controls of an I-15bis.

"The Japanese bombers appeared over Chungking on moon-lit nights when they could easily see the major landmarks... from time to time, on command of their formation leader, all the bombers would open up a defensive barrage of fire in direction most likely of attack by fighters. The performance was effective. It was like a gigantic broom of fire sweeping the starry sky."    — K. Kokkinaki, Soviet pilot, witnessing the spectacle of night-time air-raids over Chongqing in 1939

Monks of the Ciyun Temple contributed greatly to rescuing and saving lives of residents over the course of the half-decade long bombing campaigns over Chongqing.

By mid-1940, the IJNAF G3M Model 21 bombers that formed the primary aircraft of the carpet-bombing campaign against Chongqing and Chengdu had become largely relegated to nighttime bombing attacks, while daylight raids were being replaced with the new and improved Model 22/23 G3Ms equipped with the higher-octane rated and supercharged Kinsei 51 engines, boosting the power of each of the twin-engined bombers by 500 horsepower and greatly enabling the schnellbomber strategy further above the general obsolescence of the defending Chinese fighter aircraft now struggling to gain speed and altitude to make even a single head-on pass against the high-speed/high-altitude IJNAF bombing runs, and even more vulnerable to the massed-firepower of those heavy bomber formations.

Also by mid-1940, the Japanese had employed new tactics to stave off attacks from defending Chinese fighters; the Chinese air raid early warning network would alert the Chinese fighter squadrons to scramble their fighters towards approaching Japanese bomber formations (ideally with ample time to attain sufficient altitude ahead of the raids); however, they were being monitored by fast IJNAF C5M (IJAAF designation Ki-15) scouting-attack planes at high altitudes which would radio instructions to the bombers to circle out of range as the Chinese fighters rose to meet the bombers; once the Chinese fighters had run low on fuel and returned to base, the scouts would then redirect the bombers to attack the Chinese fighters on the ground refueling. While the Chinese soon cracked the code used by the C5M crews relaying messages to the bomber formations, some of the countermeasures used by the Chinese pilots were to launch a pair of I-16s that were almost fast enough to intercept the C5M in pursuit, but enough to force the scouts away, while a second flight of fighters were launched against returning Japanese bombers as the first flight of Chinese interceptors returned to disperse in smaller auxiliary airbases to refuel, although successful interceptions were still limited against the IJNAF bombers as the Polikarpovs struggled in particular against the new Model 22/23 G3M bombers.

A C5M and three G3Ms were shot down over eastern Chongqing on 20 May 1940 by the 24th PS, the 4th PG equipped with the few (10 in total) 20mm ShVAK cannon-armed and more-powerful M-25V engined I-16 Type 17 fighters that the Chinese Air Force had; unfortunately, two of the I-16 Type 17s were put out of action following the battle, having been shot-up by the defensive fire from the Japanese raiders and making forced landings.

The Japanese air raids against Chongqing had become increasingly intense and destructive as the "joint air strike force" of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy bomber formations began to comprise upwards of 150–200 bombers per raid, under the new codename "Operation 101", and massed defensive machine gun and cannon fire from the bomber formations were very effective against the slow Chinese fighter aircraft further handicapped with burning low-grade fuel, much of which came by way of French Indochina and processed locally; locally sourced oil came by way of the Yumen Laojunmiao oil wells in Gansu province beginning in the summer of 1939, which produced 90% of the native petrol (250,000 tons) for China during those war years.

The Japanese warned foreign delegations in Chongqing to avoid being hit as collateral damage in the massed attacks by moving to pre-defined "secure areas" which would be exempt from bombing; a large Nazi flag was emblazoned on the roof of the German embassy in Chongqing, but was still hit by a Japanese air raid.

Following the defeat of France by Germany in June 1940, the French Vichy Government submitted to the demands of the Japanese – allowing Japanese troops to conduct cross-border raids into Yunnan province, and the stationing of Japanese army air units at three airbases in French Indochina (now Vietnam), including Lạng Sơn.

On 10, 12 and 16 June 1940, the Japanese raided Chongqing with 129, 154 and 114 bombers on these days respectively, while the Chinese I-15 and I-16 fighter squadrons engaged these attacks shooting down 13 of the raiders, perhaps more importantly, forcing bombers to miss their targets, although these disrupted flights of bombers may have evaded the Chinese fighters from their primary targets, and diverted out to drop bombs on secondary targets, including other large population and industrial areas such as Ziliujing and Luxian. The Chinese would be dealt with a serious blow a few weeks later in July 1940 when the British yielded to Japanese diplomatic pressure and closed the Burma Road, which was China's primary lifeline for material and fuel needed in the defense of Chongqing and Chengdu.

On 11 August 1940, 4th PG CO Maj. Zheng Shaoyu personally selected a team of five of his top fighter pilots, including ace fighter pilot Capt. Liu Zhesheng and future ace Lt. Gao Youxin to deploy a new weapon in an experiment to help with the dispersal of, and attacks against, the massive Japanese bomber formations: multiple air burst bombs developed by combat flight instructor Yan Lei of the Central Air Force Academy at the Wujiaba Airbase. At 13:56 hours that day, 90 G3M bombers appeared in two waves, and Maj. Zheng's team, with ample preparations, maneuvered high and above the approaching bomber formation with precision flying while the Japanese aircrews observed the unusual movements of the Chinese fighters, who soon dropped the air-burst devices that descended under parachutes, and detonating just a few hundred meters in front of the lead bombers, resulting in a breakup of the bomber formation followed by furious attacks from the Chinese fighter pilots the best they could with the handicap of the highly challenged performance and firepower of their Polikarpovs, claiming five shot down (two wrecks confirmed) and damaging many others; eight Chinese fighters suffered various degrees of damage while the wreckages of Japanese bombers were found in Shichuxian and Shuangqing with three of the seven-man crew in one of the bombers found alive and taken prisoner.

The state-of-the-art new Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters were first deployed into combat in course of the Chongqing and Chengdu bombing raids, and received its first baptism of fire in aerial combat on 13 September 1940; 13 Zeroes of the 12th Kokutai led by Lieutenant Saburo Shindo which had escorted 27 G3M bombers on a raid into Chongqing were sent against 34 Chinese fighters: including Polikarpov I-15bis (led by Maj. Louie Yim-qun of the 28th PS) and I-16 (led by Capt. Yang Mengjing of the 24th PS) and other Polikarpov fighters of Maj. Zheng Shaoyu's 4th PG. The battle lasted about half an hour by which point the Chinese were low on fuel and had to break off; with some luck, escaping further contact with the much faster Zeroes. Many of the Polikarpovs were damaged or shot down (the Zero pilots claiming 27 Polikarpovs shot down), with ten pilots killed, and eight wounded, Maj. Zheng Shaoyu and Lt. Gao Youxin managed to drive Zeroes off the tails of other Chinese fighters, with Lt. Gao closing-in to 50 meters (160 ft) of one, and claiming a Zero shot-down, but in fact only four Zeroes suffered some damage, and all 13 safely returned to base in Wuhan.

As the already desperate situation was now irrefutable with the scourge of the new Zero fighters, the Chinese Air Force high-command issued an all-points bulletin to avoid combat engagement against the new air-superiority fighters; however, Chinese fighters would continue with fatalistic courage to face the Zero on numerous occasions, including another large-scale dogfight over Chengdu on 14 March 1941 that saw the Japanese Zero fighters employ new tactics to avoid near-deadly mistakes from the 13 September 1940 air battle experience; the intense dogfight over Chengdu was another devastatingly dark day in the tragic chapters of the Chinese Air Force in the war, as eight pilots were killed, including top-ace fighter pilots Maj. John Huang Xinrui and Capt. Cen Zeliu, along with the young 2nd Lt. Lin Heng (younger brother of renowned architect Phyllis Lin Huiyin).

In response to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the Empire of Japan was finally met with the U.S. scrap metal and oil embargo against Japan and the freezing of Japanese assets in summer of 1941.

On 5 June 1941, in midst of the increased brutality of the new Operation 102 bombing campaign to force the Chinese to capitulate in their war of resistance, the Japanese flew more than 20 sorties, bombing the city for three hours. About 4,000 residents who hid in a tunnel were asphyxiated. With the start of full-scale war between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany on 22 June 1941, and with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek looking for increased support from the Americans through the Lend-Lease Act of which was extended to China on 6 May 1941, all new fighter aircraft produced by the Soviets were now directed to the battlefronts against Nazi Germany.

On 11 August 1941, in what would be the last-recorded dogfight between the Chinese Air Force fighters and the IJNAF Zeroes before all active Zero squadrons were pulled out of China in preparations for Operation Z (the Pearl Harbor attack mission), future Japanese ace-fighter pilots Gitaro Miyazaki and Saburō Sakai were part of the escort of an Operation 102 bomber attack and fighter sweep of Chinese air bases between Chongqing and Chengdu, and encountered Chinese I-153 and I-16 fighters at Wenjiang Airbase; while shooting down all those that managed to take off or strafing those still taxiing down the runways, Saburo Sakai described how five Zeroes then struggled to shoot down the one last opponent still in the air that "was an absolute master" as it "snap-rolled, spiralled, looped and turned through seemingly impossible maneuvers... like a wraith", but Sakai himself only managed to finally shoot down the acrobatic biplane fighter pilot when he was forced to slow-roll in a climb while trying to clear over the top of a hill west of Chengdu. The belly of the Chinese fighter suddenly exposed right into the gunsight of Sakai's Zero, who fired cannon shells that "tore through the floorboards of the biplane", sending it down in a wide spin and exploding as it hit the hillside. Four Chinese pilots were killed in this engagement, including Lt. Huang Rongfa, whose fiancée, Ms. Yang Quanfang, took a pistol and shot herself at the memorial for him and the other martyrs on the 16th of August; under these special circumstances, the remains of Ms. Yang and Lt. Huang were buried together at the Chongqing Nanshan Air Force Martyrs Memorial Park.

On 30 August 1941, Lt. General Saburo Endo, commander of the Imperial Japanese Army's 3rd Sentai, having already received intelligence reports regarding an upcoming military conference in Chongqing held by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, and the precise location for it, led a massive strike from Wuhan consisting of 205 bomber-attack planes, with Saburo Endo himself personally leading the assassination strike on Yunxiu Villa (specifically the Yunxiu Tower); at first, it made a low-level bombing run for accuracy, but was severely hampered by intense bursts of anti-aircraft fire that, according to him, "knocked me up away from my seat several times", and then having to increase altitude to 5,500 meters to make the bombing run instead, killing two guards west of Yunxiu Tower, but failing to kill the Generalissimo, who recorded in his diary how he felt the immense shocks of the bombing and suffering of the people who experienced the torment not just day and night, but for over four years.

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the United States declared war on Japan, and President Roosevelt sought an immediate counterattack for the humiliation of Pearl Harbor; in the urgency to keep China resupplied for the new Sino-US joint effort in the war against Japan, General Joseph Stilwell was sent to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek on a top secret arrangement for the transfer of North American B-25 Mitchell bomber support equipment, radio-homing navigational aids and 100-octane avgas into China to support the planning of what was to become the Doolittle Raid against the Japanese home islands. The badly needed high-octane avgas and new equipment in China for the renewed war effort against the Empire of Japan were now increasingly being freighted via the risky Himalayan air-route known as "The Hump". As Japan's focus shifted towards the Pacific campaign, and much of the Japanese aerial-combat assets and experienced personnel had been diverted to support the war in the Pacific, the offensive campaign against Chongqing and Chengdu had been significantly curtailed; nonetheless, modern interceptor aircraft possessing far greater speed and firepower, supported by ground-based radar equipment, and new aircrew training supported by the US and Allied partners, allowed the Chinese Air Force to be in a much better position to fight back by August 1943. The last recorded air raid of the campaign took place on 19 December 1944.

Total Bomb Tonnage and Raids

Three thousand tons of bombs were dropped on the city from 1939 to 1942. According to photographer Carl Mydans, the spring 1941 bombings were at the time "the most destructive shelling ever made on a city", although terror bombing grew rapidly during the Second World War: by comparison 2,300 tons of bombs were dropped by Allied bombers on Berlin in a single night during the Battle of Berlin. A total of 268 air raids were conducted against Chongqing.

Lawsuit Against the Japanese Government

In March 2006, 40 Chinese who were wounded or lost family members during the bombings sued the Japanese government, demanding 10,000,000 yen (628,973 yuan) each, and asked for apologies. "By filing a lawsuit, we want the Japanese people to know about Chongqing bombings," said a victim. In 2006, 188 Chongqing bombing survivors filed a group lawsuit in Japanese courts, seeking compensation and an apology. In 2015 the Tokyo High Court upheld a lower courts' ruling acknowledging damages caused, but denying the plaintiffs' right to compensation.

References

Cheung, Raymond. Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2015.

Caidin, Martin. Zero Fighter: Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II Weapons Book No. 9. New York, NY: Ballantine Books Inc, 1969.

Xú,Lùméi.Fallen: A Decryption of 682 Air Force Heroes of The War of Resistance-WWII and Their Martyrdom 东城区, 北京， 中国: 团结出版社, 2016.

Japanese air raids drove mobs of Chinese into Chungking’s cave shelters.

Fighter pilot Xu Jixiang of the 17th Pursuit Squadron, 5th Pursuit Group leaning on an I-15bis, the plane he flew against the A6M Zero's debut air battle on 13 September 1940, fighting off numerous attacks by the confounding performance of the new air superiority fighter, and surviving; Xu would exact a measure of personal revenge on 4 March 1944 when he shot down an A6M Zero over the Japanese airbase at Qiongshan, Hainan, whilst flying a P-40 Warhawk with the CACW.

Japanese bomber crew preparing bombs before a mission in Hunan Province, China, 8 Sep 1944; bomb on right of photo noted 'gift for Chiang Kaishek'.

A photograph taken by IJA reporters on 16 June 1940 and published in the Asahi Shimbun showing bombs from IJAAF Type 97/Ki-21 heavy bombers exploding on Yuzhong Peninsula.

The vastly improved IJNAF Type 96/G3M Model 22 placed the defending Chinese fighter aircraft, and anti-aircraft artillery at an even greater disadvantage.

Large German flag painted on the roof of the German embassy in Chongqing, China to alert against Japanese bombers, circa 1939.

Beginning on 3 May 1939, Japanese bombers pulverize Chungking, China, Chiang Kai-shek’s capital since 1938, from the air.

Smoke and debris rising from the city, a result of savage air bombing by the Japanese.

Smoke rising from the many bamboo structures of the city, a result of savage air bombing by the Japanese.

Chongqing street after a 1941 Japanese bombing raid.

Bomb-damaged Chongqing, China, date unknown.

Casualties of a Japanese air raid, in which 4,000 people were trampled or suffocated to death trying to return to shelters. Chongqing, China, June 5, 1941.

Lt. General Saburo Endo who represented the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service during the Operation 101 and 102 joint-strike bombing campaigns, led a targeted aerial-assassination strike on Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek on 30 August 1941; he would put forth his "Futility of the Chongqing Bombing Thesis" days after the failed assassination strike, and gained a reputation as a post-war anti-war pacifist, establishing the China-Japan Servicemen's Devotion Society.

Volunteer army leaving Chongqing.

Map showing the concentrated bombing of Yuzhong Peninsula in central Chongqing, by Imperial Japan during World War II (Second Sino-Japanese War).